Clinical Updates on COVID-19 (API-ICP Guidelines on COVID-19) S Arulrhaj
INDEX
Page numbers followed by b refer to box, f refer to figure, fc refer to flowchart, and t refer to table.
A
Acute cardiac injury 50
Acute coronary syndrome 63, 64, 78fc, 129, 129fc
management of 76
Acute inflammation, arrhythmias related to 63
Acute respiratory distress syndrome 3, 15, 23, 50, 55, 71, 72, 72fc, 73, 75, 88, 98
mild 42
moderate 42
Aerosol generating procedure 40
Air space consolidation 45
Airborne precautions 40
Airway pressure release ventilation 74, 75
Alcohol and caffeine 122
Aldosterone antagonists 125
American Association of Clinical Endocrinology 91
Amiodarone 67, 68
Angioedema 126
Angiotensin receptor blockers 89, 121123
Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, 13, 14, 17, 25, 62, 87, 121
inhibitors 64, 89, 122, 123
Anorexia 108
Antiarrhythmic drugs 68, 128
Antiarrhythmics 67
Antibody 32
Anticoagulants 67
Anti-diabetic drugs 68
Antigen 32
presentation cells 14, 17
Antihelminthic drug 111
Antihypertensives avoided during pregnancy, classes of 125
Antiphospholipid antibodies 116, 119
Antiplatelet 67
therapy, dual 66
Architectural distortion 48f
Arrhythmias 128
management of 128fc
Arterial blood gas 41, 42
Aspirin 64
Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease 124
Atrial fibrillation 66
Azithromycin 54, 57, 68
B
B cell receptor 17
Bat-SL ZXC21 13
Bat-SL-COV ZC45 13
Bat-SL-COV ZXC21 13
β-coronavirus, novel 104
Beta-blockers 64, 68, 125
Bisoprolol 68
Blood
culture 48
glucose
self-monitoring 90
testing 91
pressure 52
cuffs 39
systolic 41, 71, 77
Body's inflammatory response 53
Bosch Vivalytic analyzer 31
Bronchoalveolar lavage 30, 109
Bronchoalveolar system 107
Bronchoscopy 40
Bronchovascular thickening 45
C
Calcium channel blockers 123, 123, 125
Cancer 62, 109
Carbon dioxide 17
Cardiac troponin I, high-sensitivity 62
Cardiogenic pulmonary edema 73
Cardiogenic shock, management of 76, 77fc
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation 40, 69
Cardiovascular complications, management of 61
Cardiovascular disease 61, 62, 106, 109, 124
Carvedilol 68
Cavitation 45
Center for Disease Control and Prevention 9, 24, 108
Central venous pressure 77, 126
Cerebrovascular accident 21
Chemokine 17
Chemoprophylaxis 57
Chemotherapeutic medicines 122
Chest X-ray 41, 43, 59, 99, 109, 110f
Chloroquine 56
Chronic kidney disease 124
Ciprofloxacin 68
Cobicistat 111
Coinfections, treatment of 50
Complete blood count 43, 119
Conservative fluid management 74
Contact, definition of 38
Continuous positive airway pressure 42, 73
Convalescent plasma 95
transfusion 79
Corona
tentacles 105f
tracking 104t
Coronary artery disease 69, 124
Coronary care unit 69
Coronary intervention, percutaneous 64, 78
Coronaviridae 1, 10
Coronavirus 9, 94
alpha 10
and replication, entry of 13
beta 10, 13
delta 10
disease 2019 1, 9, 37, 71, 94, 104
gamma 10
genera of 12f
genomic structure of 11
genus, beta 94
immune evasion 16
infection by 14
mode of transmission of 10f
phylogenetic tree of 11, 12f
virion, structure of 10
Corticosteroids 74
systemic 49
Cough, dry 108
COVID positive case, management of confirmed 129fc
COVID RT-PCR 109
COVID-19 31, 87, 98, 122
and diabetes 91
and endoscopy 83
and gastrointestinal tract 82
and geriatrics 104
and inflammatory bowel disease 85
and kidney 94
and liver disease 84
and outpatient practice 84
chemoprophylaxis against 57t
classification of confirmed 71
cytokine storm in 15, 88, 107
death rate 106f
diabetes and 88
diagnosis of 17f, 29
drug therapy and 67t
drugs for 124
during pregnancy, management of hypertension in 125
dysglycmeia-hyperglycemia 88
epidemiology of 1
fatality rate 107f
hypertension guidelines in 121, 122
hypertension in 123, 127
infection 73, 94
cardiac manifestations of 62
clinical features of 20
clinical stages of 23b
clinical syndromes of 42f
group in 106f
hematological clues to 115
ICU support in 71
myocarditis in 76
respiratory support in 72
symptoms of 22t
management approach for 100fc
management of 37
hypertension in 123fc
mild 41
severe 50
number of 5f, 6f
on diabetics, effect of 89
pathophysiology of 9
positive case, management of confirmed 78fc
protocol for testing of 30f, 32
recovery of oldest couple from 108f
renal specific management of 95
therapy in 54
treatment 54
frontiers against 79
virology of 9
virus infection 61
C-reactive protein 43, 76, 101, 109, 127
ratio 118
Creatine phosphokinase 43, 109
Critical illness 98
Current coronavirus disease 61
Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes 14
D
Darunavir 111
D-dimer 25, 43, 48, 101, 109, 116
Diabetes 62, 87
management of 89
mellitus 109
Dialysis, management of 96
Diarrhea 108
Disease
burden 4
moderate 42, 43t
natural history of 4f
severe 42, 43t
Disopyramide 68
Dobutamine, addition of 65
Double-membrane vesicles 11
Droplet precautions 40
Drowsiness 41
Drug
interaction and precautions 68t
role of 79, 80fc
Dyspnea 108
E
Early supportive therapy and monitoring 49
Ectopic tachycardia 128
Ejection fraction, mid-range 77
Enalaprilat 126
Endoplasmic reticulum 14
Enzyme, membrane-bound 130
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay 17
Eplerenone 125
Extracorporeal life support 52, 74, 75
Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation 55, 63, 7678, 126, 127
veno-arterial 78
veno-venous 78
weaning 79
Extracorporeal treatments 95
F
Face mask, simple 49
Fatigue 108
Fecal-oral transmission 107
Ferritin 33, 43
Fetal renal dysfunction, risk of 125
Fluid resuscitation 65
Food and Drug Administration 58
G
Gastroenteritis virus, transmissible 12
Glasgow Coma Scale 76
Glucocorticoids 53
Glucose control 92
Gram-positive enhancer matrix 113
Ground-glass opacities 45
extensive bilateral 44f
H
Handwashing, frequent 96
Healthcare worker 30
Heart
chronic 88
failure 63, 77, 126
drugs for 126
management of 76, 77fc, 126fc
treatments for 126
rate 41
Hemagglutinin-esterase 12
Hemodialysis 96
Hemodynamic instability 73
Hemogram, complete 41
Human coronavirus 1f, 12, 87
structure of 11f
Human heme metabolism, effect on 16
Human leukocyte antigen 17
Humoral and cellular immunity 15
Hydralazine 126
Hydroxychloroquine 54, 57, 68
contraindications for 57
Hyperbilirubinemia, mild 84
Hypercoagulable 66
Hypertension 21, 62, 88, 109, 122
drugs for 126
systemic 67
treatments for 126
Hypertensive emergencies 129
management of 130fc
Hypoglycemia 89
Hypokalemia 125
Hypotension 101
Hypothermia 72
Hypoxemia 98
Hypoxemic respiratory failure, management of 50
Hypoxia 101
I
Ibuprofen 122
Illness
mild 98
severe 98
Immune response, dysregulation of 117
Immune thrombocytopenia 118
Immune thrombocytopenic purpura 119
Immunoglobulin 17
G 112
Immunomodulators 58
Implantable cardioverter defibrillator 128
Indian Council of Medical Research 6, 57, 68
Indian National Association for Study of Liver 83
Indian Society of Gastroenterology 83
Infection, reservoir of 2
Infectious bronchitis virus 12
Inflammatory bowel disease 85
Inhaled vasodilators 74
Insulin 68
never stop 91
Intensive care unit 21
Interferon-I, protective effect of 16
Interleukin-1β 16
International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis 116
Intra-aortic balloon pump 77
Intravenous oxygenator 79
Ivabradine 126
Ivermectin 111
K
Kidney
disease 96
chronic 109
injury, acute 43, 48, 50, 79, 94, 95
L
Labetalol 126
Lactate dehydrogenase 43, 109
Left ventricular ejection fraction 63
Left ventricular failure 129
Leukoerythroblastic reaction 118, 118f
Life and lung transplantation 78
Liver
function test 41, 43, 84
injury, acute 50
Lockdown procedures 5
Lopinavir 57, 111
Lung
disease 88
chronic 109
hypoplasia 125
injury, acute 74, 75
opacities, hazy bilateral 44f
transplant 74
Lymphocyte 115, 118
Lymphopenia 115
Lymphoplasmacytoid 115
M
Mask with reservoir bag 49
Mean arterial pressure 23, 52, 75, 76
Mechanical circulatory support 77
Mediastinal lymph nodes, enlarged 46f
Mediastinal lymphadenopathy 45
Membranes, premature rupture of 22
Messenger ribonucleic acid 11, 14
Methyldopa 125
Metoprolol 68
Middle east respiratory syndrome 9, 61, 107
coronavirus 13, 15, 94
cells for 95
Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist 123
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare 39
Monoclonal antibodies 95, 113
Monophosphoramidate prodrug 58
Mortality, predictors of 24
Multilobar infiltrates 72
Multiorgan failure 73
Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome 71
Murine hepatitis virus 12
Myalgias 108
Myocarditis 63
management of 78fc
N
Naproxen 122
Nasal cannula 49
high-flow 55, 72
Nasal catheter, high-flow 51
Nasal oxygen, high-flow 51, 72
Nasal swab 34
Nasopharyngeal swab 34
National Health Commission of China 62
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence 71
Nausea 108
Neuromuscular blockade 74
Neutrophil 48
Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio 117, 118
Nicardipine 126
Nifedipine, extended-release 125
Nitric oxide, inhaled 74
Nitroglycerin 77, 126
infusion 129
Non-ICU patients 26
Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation 72
Noninvasive ventilation 51, 55, 72, 73, 101
Nonspecific symptoms 23
Non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction 64, 78
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs 58, 89, 122
Non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction 129
Nonventilator strategies 74
Non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants 66
Novel coronavirus 12f, 107, 115
infection 2019 49
nucleic acid of 95
Novel human coronavirus 87
Nucleic acid 29
Nucleocapsid 12
Nutritional support 74
O
Obesity 88
Obstructive lung disease 73
Obstructive pulmonary disease, chronic 21
Oral contraceptive pills 122
Organ dysfunction, new onset 101
Organ failure assessment
sepsis-related 72, 76
sequential 95
Oscillatory ventilation, high-frequency 74, 75
Oseltamivir 111
Outpatient departments 32
Oxygen
delivering interfaces 49
systems, functioning 49
Oxygenation index 75
P
Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia 128
Peak stage 48
Percussive ventilation, high-frequency 74, 75
Percutaneous coronary intervention 129
Peripheral blood smear 118f
Personal protection equipment 38, 64, 78, 83, 96, 102, 129
Phosphorylated nucleocapsid 10
Plateau pressure 75
Platelets 115
Pleural effusion 45
Pneumothorax 45
Point-of-care testing 17
Polymerase chain reaction 17, 30, 41, 72
Polymorphonuclear neutrophils 58
Poor prognostic signs 48
Positive end-expiratory pressure 42, 73, 75
Pressure controlled ventilation 74
Procainamide 68
Procalcitonin level 101
Prostaglandin E-1 74
Protein
nonstructural 11, 12f
ORF10 16
ORF1ab 16
structural 12f
Pulmonary manifestations 98
Pulse oximeters 49
Q
Quarantine 40t
Quinidine 68
Quinolones 68
avoid 57
R
Rapid testing 31
Receptor-binding domain 13
Refractory hypoxemia, ventilatory strategies for 75fc
Refractory hypoxia 74
Remdesivir 58, 111
triphosphate 58
Renal function test 43
Renal replacement therapy, continuous 95
Replication-transcription complex 11
Respiratory disease
chronic 62
symptom of 37
Respiratory failure, severe 71
Respiratory rate 41, 80
Respiratory tract, open suctioning of 40
Restroom 92
Refractory hypoxemia 74
Ribonucleic acid 11, 14, 58
double-stranded 16
polymerases 58
Ritonavir 57, 111
Running nose 108
S
S proteins 10
Sacubitril 126
Samples collect 34t
Sepsis 75, 127
management of 127fc
Septic shock 75, 76fc
management of 52
Serum
creatinine 41
ferritin, raised 48
procalcitonin 43
Severe acute respiratory distress syndrome 42
Severe acute respiratory illness 40
Severe acute respiratory infection 22, 30, 49, 61, 73, 94, 101, 115
Severe acute respiratory syndrome 9
coronavirus 1, 1315, 17, 25, 37, 40, 57, 87, 100, 104
coronavirus 2 87
pathogenicity of 14f
Severe disease, investigations for 48
Shock 50, 65
Social distancing 111
Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy 83
Sodium nitroprusside 126, 130
Sotalol 68
Spironolactone 125
S-protein 112, 113
Sputum production 108
Standard oxygen therapy 51
Statin 64, 67
ST-elevation myocardial infarction 64, 65, 78
Steroid therapy 2
Stethoscopes 39
Stroke, drugs for 126
ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction 129
Subpleural bands 48f
Suspect case 37
Systolic blood pressure 124
T
T-cell 117
receptor 17
Tachyarrhythmias, malignant 63
Tailored therapeutic strategy 92
Telemedicine sessions 111
Thermometers 39
Thiazide diuretics 123
Thoracic imaging 99
Throat swab 34
Thrombocytopenia 72
Thromboembolic disease 66
Thromboprophylaxis 54
Titrate fluid 65
Tocilizumab 58
Touching face and nose, avoiding 96
Traction bronchiectasis 47f
Transmission dynamics 2
Travel history 3f
Tree-in-bud appearance 45
Tubular necrosis, acute 79
Tumor necrosis factor-α 16
U
Unknown origin, pneumonia of 104
Uremia 72
V
Valsartan 126
Venous thromboembolism 66
Ventilation, inverse ratio 74
Ventilatory support 72, 72fc
Ventricular assist devices 77
Ventricular fibrillation 67, 78
Ventricular tachycardia 66, 78
Viral transport medium 30, 35
Virological tests 32
W
Weathering cytokine storm 79
White blood cell 115
World Health Organization 1, 20, 42, 87, 107
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Chapter Notes

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Epidemiology of COVID-19CHAPTER 1

Partha Sarathi Karmakar,
Nandini Chatterjee,
Biswajit Banik,
Uddalak Chakraborty
 
INTRODUCTION
The current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is one of the worst catastrophes to engulf humanity in recent times. The World Health Organization (WHO) had declared this outbreak as a pandemic on March 11, 2020 and so far it has claimed more than 182,467 lives in 214 countries (April, 2020).
 
THE AGENT
The causative agent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a newly emerged coronavirus, so that the human population is immune naïve and totally susceptible to it. Coronaviruses are spherical or pleomorphic enveloped RNA viruses. They have distinctive club shaped spikes on their surface giving the appearance of “solar corona”. It is the new virus, which is the seventh member of the Coronaviridae family (Fig. 1). At 125 nm, it is slightly larger than other influenza viruses. It has four structural proteins which help in its adherence entry, replication assembly and exit. It binds to its target cells through angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), which is expressed by epithelial cells of the lung, intestine, kidney, and blood vessels.
zoom view
Fig. 1: Electron micrograph showing human coronavirus 229E (Bar, 100 mn).Source: S Sikotra, Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester, England.
2
 
THE RESERVOIR OF INFECTION
The emergence of the virus was linked to a local Huanan (South China) Seafood Market in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China in December 2019. Another hypothesis is that coronaviruses that are phylogenetically close to SARS-CoV-2 have been detected in pangolins (scaly anteaters), especially in Malayan pangolins (also known as Sunda pangolins) that are obtained in antismuggling operations in Guangdong Province and the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in China.1 This species, which is located throughout Southeast Asia, may be a potential intermediate host of SARS-CoV-2. Another theory was regarding bats being potential reservoirs.2 However, the important source of infection was found to be human. They may be cases, asymptomatic carriers or even fresh cadavers.
 
THE HOST
Some studies have reported an age distribution of adult patients between 25 and 89 years old. Most adult patients were between 35 and 55 years old, and children and infants were less affected.3 The median age of patients was found to be 59 years, with the majority (59%) being male.4 It was suggested that the population most at risk may be older people (>60 years of age) and those with comorbidities such as coronary artery disease, diabetes, hypertension renal pulmonary, and hepatic dysfunction.5 Pregnant women, immunocompromised patients, steroid therapy or malignancy also comprise high-risk groups.
 
TRANSMISSION DYNAMICS
The disease has a high transmissibility measured by a high basic reproduction number R0. Different studies of COVID-19 have estimated the basic reproduction (R0) range to be from 2.6 to 4.71 (Fig. 2).6,7
The virus can be spread through respiratory droplets between people who are within about 6 feet of each other, through fomites, fecal-oral route, vertically and possibly by aerosol. Contact transmission may occur when a subject touches a surface or object contaminated with the virus and subsequently touch their mouth, nose, or eyes.8
Both symptomatic and asymptomatic cases as well those in convalescence are infectious.3
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Fig. 2: The population may be divided into the following four classes: Susceptible, exposed (asymptomatic), infectious (symptomatic), and removed (i.e., isolated, recovered, or otherwise noninfectious). A fraction of exposed individuals have a subsequent travel history and are eventually detected in their destination country.Source: Kucharski AJ, Russell C, Diamond C, Liu Y, Edmunds J, Funk S, Early dynamics of transmission and control of COVID-19: a mathematical modelling study. Lancet. 2020. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30144-4.
 
Environmental Factors
Thus social gatherings, religious events, meetings, overcrowding as well as poor sanitation are conducive to explosive transmission.
 
Natural History
The average incubation duration of COVID-19 was estimated to be 4.8 ± 2.6, ranging from 2 to 14 days (Fig. 3).9 The symptomatic patients may have mild flu-like symptoms (81%) or progress to severe (14%) and critical disease with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), shock and multiorgan failure in (5%). The case fatality rate varies in different countries but has been reported as around 2.5–5%.104
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Fig. 3: Natural history of disease.Source: Emergency Medicine Cases (2020). Ep 137 COVID-19 Part 1—Screening, Diagnosis and Management. [online] Available from: https://emergencymedicinecases.com/COVID-19-screening-diagnosis-management [Last accessed April, 2020].
 
DISEASE BURDEN
As of now (April 19, 2020) the total number of confirmed cases globally is 2,317,758 and number of deaths are 129,509 (Figs. 4 and 5). In India, there are 15,722 cases with 521 deaths while 2,463 people have recovered (Fig. 6).
 
STRATEGIES FOR PREVENTION AND CONTROL
Some of the most important measures are to avoid close contact with people suffering from respiratory infections (social distancing), frequent hand washing with sanitizers containing more than 70% alcohol. Cough etiquette (covering while coughing and sneezing) is to be practiced and masks are to be universally used. Health education is of prime importance in influencing people.
Personal protective equipment are to be used while caring for cases by healthcare workers and standard infection prevention and control practices are to be undertaken in hospitals.5
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Fig. 4: Human confirmed cases of 2019-nCoV infection in the world (as on 24:00 UTC+8, February 20, 2020).Source: Sun J, He W, Wang L, Zhou J, Veit M, Su S, et al. COVID-19: Epidemiology, Evolution, and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives. Trend Mol Med. 2020. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2020.02.008.
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Fig. 5: Number of COVID-19 cases worldwide (as of April 19, 2020).Source: ORF (2020). Tracking COVID-19 in South Asia and beyond [online]. Available from: https://www.orfonline.org/covid19-tracker/ [Last accessed April, 2020].
The chain of transmission can be interrupted by lockdown procedures in areas. In the absence of effective vaccine these measures should be meticulously followed.6
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Fig. 6: Number of COVID-19 cases in India (as of April 19, 2020).Source: ORF (2020). Tracking COVID-19 in South Asia and beyond [online]. Available from: https://www.orfonline.org/covid19-tracker/ [Last accessed April, 2020].
Moreover, five pronged approach to tackling the disease is diagnosis, notification, isolation treatment and quarantine. A proportion of testing capacity must be reserved to support public health efforts to assess the severity of the disease. Although this approach may result in many negative test results, such set-aside capacity will permit understanding of the spread of the epidemic. Testing in unexplained clusters or severe cases of acute respiratory infections, regardless of a patient's travel history, may be a sensitive way to screen for chains of transmission that may have been missed.
Therefore, apart from testing of symptomatic cases and contacts of suspected and confirmed cases, the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has also recommended pool testing for asymptomatic individuals in a community and cluster testing by rapid kit for people participating in gatherings.7
 
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
This is an important tool in future planning, implementation and evaluation that aids in prevention and control of a disease. Synthesis of data is possible from simultaneous surveillance studies, epidemiologic field investigations, and case series. Conducting descriptive and analytical studies in well-defined settings such as schools, workplaces, or neighborhoods (community surveys) can help in describing the household and community attack rate; rapid assessment of the severity of the epidemic by case counts, hospitalizations, and deaths in a well-defined population and extrapolating that rate to the larger population can help in subsequent preparedness and response.
 
CONCLUSION
Epidemiology aims to analyze disease occurrence and utilize the knowledge to formulate the means of dealing with a health crisis for the wellbeing of society.11 The severity and transmissibility of this COVID-19 pandemic is so explosive that the health system is being overwhelmed in many countries resulting in failure to provide emergency medical assistance to critical cases.12 Thus it is imperative to study the epidemiological determinants of disease and device strategies to fight this scourge.
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