Glucocrinology: The Relationship between Glucose and Endocrine Function Sanjay Kalra, Gagan Priya
INDEX
Page numbers followed by ‘f’ figure; ‘fc’ flow chart; and ‘t’ indicate table respectively.
A
Abdominal fat mass 186
Ablation treatments 123
Acarbose 199
Acetyl coenzyme A 29
Acid-labile subunit 232
Acinar 80
Acquired hypogonadotropic hypogonadism 102
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome 165
Acquired lipodystrophy 254
Acromegaly 6, 11, 15, 128, 167, 195, 196, 237
and cardiovascular risk 240
clinical features of 196
diagnosis of 17
effect of treatment of 17
progresses 240
Activated protein kinase 29
Addison's disease 32, 154, 170
Adenosine monophosphate 29
Adenosine triphosphate 13, 43, 73, 81, 296
Adipocyte 99
hypertrophy 253
myocyte crosstalk 29
population 248
secrete several proinflammatory molecules 249
turnover 253
white and brown dofferemces 249t
Adipokines 29, 261
and enzymes 249
levels 258
physiological functions 250t
Adiponectin 111, 249, 250, 261
Adipose-derived stem cells 262
Adipose tissue 3, 54, 28, 108, 218, 248, 253, 291
biopsy 259
capacity, impaired 255
circadian rhythm 251
cytokines 112
deposits and their physiological function 248
distribution 254
dysfunction 247, 251
in diabetes 262t
energy homeostat 250
extracellular matrix expansion 255
handling of acute nutrient flux 255
health in diabetes 247, 248, 251
assessment of 256
clinical markers of 258
effect of antidiabetic agents on 260
radiological assessment of 258
structural and functional changes of 253
therapeutic strategies targeting 259
inadequate vascularization of 255
inflammation 255
insulin resistance 252
lipolysis 112
pathogenesis of insulin resistance 252fc
type 2 diabetes mellitus 252fc
Adrenal androgens 53, 56
Adrenal axis, abnormalities in 236
Adrenal cortical physiology in diabetes, changes in 65
Adrenal disorders in diabetes, vigilance for 76
Adrenal hyperplasia
bilateral 64
congenital 61, 65
unilateral 64
Adrenal insufficiency 7, 63, 64, 130, 153, 158, 170, 176
diagnosis of 236
screening for 66
Adrenal medulla 76, 77
constitutes 71
glucose physiology in relation to 71
Adrenal tumor, surgical resection of 57
Adrenal-directed medical therapy 60
Adrenaline 73
Adrenergic
receptors 72, 73
symptoms 76
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone 14, 19, 53, 60, 68, 113, 178, 222, 228
Adrenovigilance in diabetes 65, 76
Advanced glycation end-products, formation of 266
Aging males’ symptoms rating scale 104
Agouti-related peptide 12, 109
Alcohol 157
Aldactone, evaluation study 67
Aldosterone
effects of 56
primarily regulates 55
producing adenomas 64
producing adrenal lesion 243
Alkaline phosphatase 272
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors 94
Alpha-interferon 194
Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone 109
Alström syndrome 135, 136, 142, 143
Amblyopia 142
Amelioration of thyrotoxicosis 38
Amenorrhea 232, 291
American Association of Pediatrics 175
American Diabetes Association 184, 188
Amino acidemia 176
Amino acids 200
Amiodarone 239
Amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis 240
Amlexanox 263
Amylase 80, 83
Anabolic
androgens 166
hormone 81
Anakinra 261
Androgen
deficiency 99
in aging males 104
deprivation therapy 99
for prostate cancer 101
excess in females 111f
on female metabolism, effects of 110
receptor 111
replacement therapy 285
compliance of 101
Androstenedione 56
Angiosarcoma 15
Angiotensin II receptor blockers 167
Angiotensin receptor blockers 210, 237, 239, 294
Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors 210, 237, 239, 294
Angular cheilitis 202
Antepartum pituitary necrosis 239
Anthropometric measures 256
Antidiabetic medications, effect on 50t
Antihypertensive agents 166
Anti-inflammatory agents 42
Antiosteoporosis drugs 169
on glycemic control 275
Antithyroid drugs 8, 37, 162, 169
Antithyroid peroxidase 31
Aortic root abnormalities 142
Apoptosis 253
Arcuate nucleus 12, 109
Artifactual hypoglycemia 149
Asian Indian phenotype 254
characteristics of 254
Atherogenic dyslipidemia 278
Atherosclerosis 251
Auditory system 142
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia 143
Autoimmune hypoglycemia 152
Autoimmune polyglandular syndrome 135, 136, 141, 144f, 143, 144
Autoimmune thyroid disease 27, 34
Autonomic nervous system 71
Autonomic neuropathy culminates 93
Autophagy 256
and metabolism 256
deficient mice adipocytes 256
science of 256
Axonal sensory neuropathy 142
B
Bardet–Biedl syndrome 7, 15, 135, 136, 142, 143
Bariatric surgery 8, 260, 261
Basal bolus insulin therapy 63
Bathmotropic 72
Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome 176
Beige adipocytes 249
Beta-adrenergic agonists 165
Beta-blockers 169, 194, 239, 294
Beta-cell
adenosine triphosphate 180
apoptosis 164
cell insufficiency, stage of 86
Bicuspid aortic valve 142
Bile salt-dependent lipase 93
Biliopancreatic diversion 261
Bioimpedance absorptiometry 258
Birth asphyxia 177
Birth weight, very-low 179
Bisphosphonates 162, 169
Blood glucose
concentration 82f
self-monitoring of 63, 164
Blood pressure 258
raised 124
regulation 53
Blood-brain barrier 22
Blood-to-brain transport 208
Body composition 270
Body fat distribution, regulation of 110
Body mass index 62, 75, 169, 220, 247, 293
Body weight 257
Bone
disease 45
high-turnover 235
low-turnover 236
formation 274
health
antidiabetes medications, effect of 271, 272t
effect of vitamin D 271
in diabetes 265
in type 1 diabetes mellitus 266
factors leading to impaired 266
in type 2 diabetes mellitus 267, 270
factors leading to impaired 268
interpretation 269
metabolism parameters 51
mineral density 8, 48, 221, 232, 265, 272, 274
in type 2 diabetes mellitus 267
mineral health 51
mineral homeostasis 235
mineral metabolism 4, 41
morphogenetic protein-7 3, 44, 265
quality in type 2 diabetes mellitus 268
resorption, markers of 274
specific factors 274
turnover markers 48
Brain regions, diversity of 13
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor 15
Brainstem structures 13
Breast cancers 221
Bromocriptine 8, 9, 18, 60, 167, 225
Bromocriptine quick release 21
Bronchial carcinoids 199
Brown adipose tissue 12, 27, 28, 263
Brushfield iris spots 142
C
Cabergoline 60, 162, 168
Calcium 42
Calcium and phosphate 265
Calcium-channel blockers 167
Canagliflozin 224
Capillary density 240
Carbimazole 37, 155, 162
Carboxyl ester lipase 136
Carboxylase 29
Cardiac rhythm abnormalities 241
Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy 240
Cardiomyopathy 241
Cardiovascular disease 3, 123, 188, 227, 239, 251, 272
endovigilance in 238
increased risk of 118
treatment of 239t
underlying 278
Cardiovascular events 67
Cardiovascular function 72
Cardiovascular risk for primary hyperaldosteronism 242
Cardiovascular system 142
Carnitine deficiency 176
Carotid intima-media thickness 241
Carpal tunnel syndrome 196
Catabolic phase 112
Catalytic conversion of glycogen 4
Catecholamine 71, 73, 76, 165, 200
deficiency 155
derivatives 262
excess 155
increase heart rate 72
induced cardiomyopathy 241
levels 175
pharmacological use of 76
producing tumors 241
regulate glucose 72
secreting tumors 74
Celiac disease 143
Cell, types of islets 80
Central glucose sensing, molecular mechanisms of 12
Central nervous system 11, 58, 68, 142, 148, 261
Ceramides 252
Cerebellar ataxia 142
Cerebral aneurysm 15
Cesarean section for fetal distress 177
Cholesteatoma 15
Chordoma 15
Chorea 142
Chronotropic 72
Circulating glucose 83
Cleft
lip 177
palate 177
Coarse facies 196
Cocaine-amphetamine regulated transcript 15
Cognitive behavioral therapy 281
Combined oral contraceptives 165
Complex syndrome 5
Conduction defects 142
Consortium for study of chronic pancreatitis 94
Continuous glucose monitoring 218
Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion 218
Contraception and diabetes 294
Cori disease 157
Coronary artery disease 239
Corticotropin-releasing hormone 21, 68, 236
Cortisol 83
deficiency 154
Counter-regulatory hormone deficiency 153
Cranial nerve palsy 196
Cranial radiotherapy 15
Craniopharyngioma 15
Cushing's disease 11, 19, 166, 197, 198
clinical presentation 19
diagnosis of diabetes in 19
effect of treatment of 20
management of diabetes in 21, 199
Cushing's syndrome 3, 6, 8, 54, 56, 129, 132, 167, 168, 194, 197199, 211, 237, 240
and cardiovascular risk 241
clinical features of 198
clinical phenotype of diabetes in 57
glucovigilance in 59
management of hyperglycemia in 61
pathophysiology of secondary diabetes in 57
screening for 66
subclinical 57
Cycle adenosine monophosphate 5, 43, 54, 72, 284
Cyproterone acetate 116
Cystic fibrosis 85, 194
related pancreatitis 87
Cytokine signaling, suppressor of 232
Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 144
D
Daily living, activities of 188
Dead adipocytes promote insulin resistance 253
Debranching enzyme deficiency 157
Defective insulin
action 139, 140
secretion 137
Deficiency of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 157
Deficiency of pyruvate carboxylase 157
Dehydration, severe 187
Dehydroepiandrosterone 56, 166
levels 66, 236
secretion 186
sulfate 69, 224
Denosumab 162, 169
Deoxyribonucleic acid 184
Diabetes 5
and hyperthyroidism 37t
and hypothalamus-pituitary-testicular axis 295
and metabolic syndrome 104
risk of 114
and spermatogenesis 296
clinical assessment of elderly 187
epidemiology of secondary diabetes 193
functional classification of elderly 188
in acromegaly, management of 18
in children and adolescents 181
in postmenopausal women 117
in Turner syndrome, screening for 116
in women with PCOS 115
in young, maturity onset 92
incidence of 24
management of fracture 49
Diabetes mellitus 41, 135, 144
bone turnover markers in 49t
classification of 194
fibrocalculous pancreatic 182
increased fracture risk in 267
monogenic 182
type 1 23, 27, 31, 32, 45, 48, 63, 64, 83, 135, 182, 193, 204, 205, 290
type 2 14, 27, 32, 33, 46, 48, 85, 99, 100, 105, 135, 153, 165, 182, 193, 204, 205, 218, 253, 278, 290, 292, 293
type 3c 87
with unexplained hypoglycemia 66
Diabetes, pathogenesis of 193
Diabetes, specific factors 274
Diabetes, spectrum of 187
Diabetes, syndromes 7
Diabetes, treatment technologies 212
Diabetes, uncontrolled 65
Diabetes, underlying 201
Diabetic ketoacidosis 38, 224
Diabetic macrovascular disease 238
Diabetic vasculopathy 239
Diacylglycerol 252
Diastolic dysfunction 240, 253
Diazoxide 8, 170, 194
Digestive enzymes 80
Dilated cardiomyopathy 142, 241
Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 8, 9, 18, 50, 94, 164, 199, 222, 272
Disordered adipose tissue autophagy 256
Donohue syndrome 136, 139, 140
Dopamine 60, 200
agonist 18, 20, 225
receptors type 2 168
Dopaminergic tone 21
Dorsal motor nucleus 13
Double collecting system 143
Down's syndrome 7, 135, 136, 142, 194
DPP-4 inhibitors 50
Drospirenone 116
Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry 258, 274
Ductal adenocarcinoma 87
Dysglycemia 123
Dyslipidemia 6, 30, 196, 251
Dystonia 142
E
Ectopic fat deposition 253, 256, 285
Empagliflozin 224
Endocardial cushion defects 142
Endocrine
cells, clusters of 80
component 80
disease 6, 7
disorder 4, 5, 161, 170
underlying 194
drugs 162
beneficial effects on glucose metabolism 167
detrimental impact on glycemic control 163
on glucose homeostasis 162
dysfunction, treatment of 170
effects of drugs used for 239t
factors in diabetes 6
function 193
gland 112
health 123, 217
metabolic milieu changes 174
neoplasia: multiple, type 1 47
pancreas activity 73
perspectives 204
Society Guidelines 104
syndromes in diabetes 135, 136
system 4, 41, 193
therapy 8
effects of 162
vigilance in hypoglycemia 211
Endocrinology, canvas of 5
Endocrinopathy 194
classification of 128
with reversible hyperglycemia 202
Endogenous glucocorticoid excess 56, 167
Endogenous glucose production, source of 83
Endogenous hyperinsulinemia 7, 151
Endometrial 221
Endometrial cancer 118
Endoplasmic reticulum stress 252
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography 89
Endothelial dysfunction 30, 123, 242, 251, 252, 283
Endothelioma 15
Endovigilance in
chronic kidney disease 227
diabetes therapy 217
diabetic vasculopathy 227
Energy
balance 109
deficits 112
expenditure, increased 29
homeostasis, effects of estrogen on 109fc
Enhancer-binding protein alpha 248
Ependymoma 15
Epicanthal folds 142
Epidermoid 15
Epigenetic dysregulation 184, 297
Epigenetic programming 184
Epinephrine 8, 54, 72, 73, 76, 83, 200
Epithelial sodium channels 56
Eplerenone 67
Erectile dysfunction 282
diagnosis 283
epidemiology 282
etiopathogenesis 282
increased risk of 278
lifestyle modification 283
pharmacological treatment 283
Erythroblastosis fetalis 177
Estimated glomerular filtration rate 234
Estradiol 108
Estrogen 3, 231
increase 109
low doses of 183
on metabolism, effects of 108
receptor alpha 109
Ethanol 157
Euglycemia, maintaining 149
Euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamps 252
Exocrine antigens 93
Exocrine cells 80
Exocrine insufficiency 93
Exocrine pancreas, diabetes of 85
Exocrine pancreatic disorders 85
Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency 89, 93, 143
in diabetes, risk of 92
presence of 89
Exocrine pancreatic tissue 80
Exogenous glucocorticoid-induced diabetes 61
Exogenous insulin therapy 291
Extracellular
collagen deposition 240
fluid 55
matrix 248
regulated kinase 56
F
Farnesoid X receptor agonists 262
Fast oscillations 81
Fasting blood glucose 168
Fasting plasma glucose 18, 44, 115, 124, 164, 185, 204, 258
Fatty acid 200
Fatty acid
binding protein 248
metabolism 176
oxidation defect 7, 176
trap 260
Fecal chymotrypsin 89
Fecal elastase-1 89
Female reproductive function 112
Female sexual dysfunction 285
epidemiology 286
etiopathogenesis 286
treatment of 287
nonpharmacological 287
pharmacological 287
Fertilization 112
Fetal insulin secretion plays 174
Fibroblast growth factor-21 8, 228, 261, 262
Fibroblast growth factor-23 9, 41
Fibroblasts 248
Fibrocalculous pancreatic diabetes 90
Fibrocalculous pancreatopathy 85, 87, 194
Fibrosis and hypoxia 255
Follicle-stimulating hormone 104, 230, 231, 295
evaluation of 104
Folliculogenesis 112
Food intake and energy balance 109
Forkhead box P3 144
Fracture risk
assessment tool 273, 274
in diabetes 48, 268fc, 273
assessment of 273, 274t
increased 48
Frank obesity 254
Free fatty acid 14, 16, 28, 55, 178, 195, 252
induced insulin resistance 248
trapping 248
Free thyroid hormone levels 220
Friedreich ataxia 7, 135, 136, 142
Frizzled-related protein-5 249
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase 54
Functional androgen deficiency 99
G
Galactorrhea 196
Galactosemia 157, 176
Gallstone disease 251
Gamma knife radiotherapy 196
Ganglioneuroma 15
Gastric inhibitory polypeptide 3, 60, 166, 262, 272
receptors 45
secretion of 186
Gastrointestinal system 143
Gastrointestinal tract 291
Genetic
defects of
beta-cell function 194
insulin action 194
lipodystrophies 140
syndromes 15, 194
associated with diabetes 141
Genitourinary abnormalities 143
Geriatric diabetes 187
Germinoma 15
Gestational diabetes mellitus 46, 112, 184, 193
diagnostic criteria 185t
pregnancy planning and risk of 116
risk of 183
treatment targets 185t
Ghrelin 15, 111
Glucagon deficiency 155
Glucagon dysfunction 7
Glucagon facilitates 83
Glucagon levels 207
Glucagon secretion 55, 73
Glucagon-like peptide-1 58, 59, 60, 115, 157, 164, 186, 293
receptor agonists 223
Glucagon-like polypeptide-1 3, 18, 199, 262, 272
receptor agonists 36
Glucagonoma 6, 91, 194, 201
Glucagonoma syndrome 202
Glucagon-producing tumors 201
Glucocorticoid 8, 14, 53, 163, 170, 197
deficiency states 176
effects of 54t
on glucose homeostasis 53
excess 20
exposure, long-term exogenous 64
growth hormone 3
Glucocorticoid-induced
diabetes, increased risk of 62
hyperglycemia management of 62
hyperglycemia minimizing 63
hyperglycemia risk of 61
protein kinase-1 56
Glucocorticoid-receptor antagonist 60
Glucocrinological
considerations 34, 37t
considerations hormone replacement therapy 118
considerations treatment in Turner syndrome 116
Glucocrinology 3, 11
adrenal cortex 53, 198
adrenal medulla 71
adrenals, new therapeutic avenues in 67
bidirectional relationship 4
concept of 161
expanding frontiers 5
female reproductive system 184, 292, 295
framework 9
historical perspectives 4
neglected basics 5
new beginning 10
pancreas: historical perspectives 79
reproductive system: female 108
reproductive system: male 97
scope of 6t, 9
thyroid 27
Gluconeogenesis 83
Glucose and energy metabolism 28fc
Glucose brain of 76
Glucose counter-regulatory physiology 205
Glucose homeostasis 22, 43t, 54t, 56t, 67
effect on 56, 162
in children and adolescents 181
in reproductive age 183
role of insulin and glucagon in 81
Glucose lipid profile 294
Glucose metabolism 249
regulation of 28
Glucose physiology 27
during pregnancy 112
in neonatal period 174
in relation to
adrenal cortex 53
bone mineral metabolism 42
female reproductive system 108
hypothalamus and pituitary 11
male reproductive system 98
pancreas 80
Glucose, regulator of 123
Glucose sensing by pancreas 81
Glucose tolerance test 184, 294
Glucose transporter type 2 receptor mutations 157
Glucose transporter type-4 29, 43, 50, 54, 73, 98
Glucose-6-phosphatase deficiency 157, 176
Glucose-6-phosphate translocase deficiency 157
Glucose-6-phosphate transporter 54
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide 255
Glucostatic theory 11
Glucovigilance in
across stages of life 174
childhood and adolescence 181
disorders of
adrenal cortex 56
adrenal medulla 74
female reproductive tract 113
during pregnancy 184
elderly 186
endocrine therapy 161
hypothalamic disorders 14
male reproductive disorders 101, 102
men with hyperprolactinemia 103
menopause 117
neonates 174
pancreatic disorders 85
pituitary disorders 15
reproductive period 183
thyroid disorders 29
Turner syndrome 116
vitamin D deficiency 45
Glutamate dehydrogenase-1 176
Glutamic acid decarboxylase 144, 180
Glycated hemoglobin 188
Glycemic
control 17, 167
changes in 34
effect of dopamine agonists on 21
effects of therapeutic strategy on 59
optimization of 297
worsening of 37
during menstrual cycle 112
targets 212
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase 266
Glycogen phosphorylase 157
Glycogen storage disease 7, 156158, 177
Glycogen storage disorders 176
Glycogen synthase deficiency 157
Glycogenolysis 83, 175
Gonadal
axis abnormalities in men 230
hormones on metabolic health, effects of 127
vigilance in diabetes mellitus 104, 118
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone 102, 113, 291
amplitude of 230
Gonadotropins 101, 230
Graves’ disease 30
Graves’ ophthalmopathy 38
Graves’ orbitopathy 38
Growth hormone 11, 102, 126, 164, 228, 232
axis 23, 232
deficiency 22, 164, 176
on metabolic health, effect of 126
releasing hormone 232
replacement, effect of 22
therapy 233
Guanosine triphosphate 284
H
Hamartoma 15
Head trauma 15
Headache 196
Heart and estrogen 118
Hematological system 143
Hemochromatosis 85, 87
Hemodynamically stable 225
Hemoglobin A1C 44
reduction in 105
Heparin 210
Hepatic gluconeogenesis, increase 54
Hepatic glucose
output 73
production 28, 73
Hepatic insulin resistance 30
Hepatic steatosis 143, 253
Hepatitis C virus 62
Hepatocyte nuclear factor 176
Hereditary fructose intolerance 7, 157, 158, 176
Hers disease 157
Hexokinase 176
Hirata disease 155, 169
Homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance 293
Hormonal supplementation 123
Hormone
binding inhibitor 33
catabolism, abnormalities of 228
deficiency 151, 176
replacement therapy 117, 165
secreting pituitary adenoma 25
Horseshoe kidney 143
Human immunodeficiency virus 165
Human leukocyte antigen 144
Human placental growth hormone 112
Huntington's chorea 7, 135, 136, 142
Hydrocortisone, formulations of 64
Hyperaldosteronism 240
in T2DM 67
primary 6, 64, 238
Hyperandrogenism 111, 112
Hypercalcemia 242
Hypercalciuria 269
Hypercortisolism
on glucose homeostasis 60t
on glycemic control 59
resolution of 59
Hyperglucagonemia 93
Hyperglycemia 11, 33, 164
and adverse pregnancy outcome 184
endovigilance in refractory 193
in neonates 178
causes of 179t
management of 75
mechanisms of 20f, 54
pathogenesis of 58fc
prevalence of 89
related to chronic growth hormone 16f
screening for 59
uncontrolled 195
Hyperglycemic emergencies 38
Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state 187
Hyperinsulinemia 74, 269
Hypermetabolic state 38
Hyperparathyroidism 240
primary 6, 238
secondary and tertiary 235
Hyperplasia 253
Hyperprolactinemia 6, 11, 21
chronic 21
Hypertelorism 142
Hypertension 123
Hyperthyroidism 3, 6, 30, 32, 38, 128, 194, 201, 240
and cardiovascular risk 242
and diabetes 37
and thyrotoxicosis 154
clinical presentation of 201
leads 30
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy 142
Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy 241
Hypertrophy 253
Hypoactive sexual desire disorder 280
Hypoestrogenism 232
Hypoglycemia 38, 77, 169
approach to 158
associated autonomic failure 208, 209, 211
causes 208
classification of 214
common causes of 151t
consider risk factors for 211
core element of 213
development of 158, 208
drugs useful in management of 170
episode of 208, 212, 214
evaluation of newborns for 177
in diabetes 204, 205
elderly individuals 211
etiology of 209
impact of 208
improvement in insulin sensitivity 210
medical conditions 210
medications 209
pathophysiology of 206
treatment of 213
in endocrinopathies 148
incidence of 205
increase risk of 63, 210, 234
management of 177
neurogenic manifestations of 207
newborns at-risk for prolonged 177t
pathological causes of 151
prevention 204
severe 207
symptoms of 207
unawareness 169
Hypogonadism 99, 130
impact of symptoms questionnaire 104
in males, treatment of 105
screening for 104
with diabetes, testing for 104
Hypogonadotropic 105
hypogonadism: congenital 101
Hypoparathyroidism 47
Hypopituitarism 7, 11, 23, 25, 130, 153, 170
part of 102
Hypothalamic
arcuate nucleus 111
control of pancreatic function 13
dysfunction 15
gonadotropin-releasing hormone 111
nuclei
lateral 12
several 13
obesity 6, 15
causes of 15
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis 4, 24
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal, increased activation of 65
Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis 4, 24, 97
Hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian 108
Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid 4, 24, 33
Hypothalamic-pituitary vigilance in diabetes 23
Hypothalamus 30
and pituitary 11, 229
disorders of 11
in glucose, role of 11
Hypotheses 92
Hypothyroidism 6, 7, 33, 125, 129, 170, 220, 229
and diabetes 34
clinical presentation 35
effect on diabetic complications 35
levothyroxine treatment 35
prevalence of 34
I
Iatrogenic hypoglycemia 206
Immune mediated diabetes syndrome 136
Immune system, cells of 45
Immunodysregulation 136
polyendocrinopathy 143
Immunoglobulin E 144
Impaired glucose tolerance 30, 47, 195, 196
Inborn errors of metabolism 176
Incontinence, cerebellar ataxia 142
Incretin-based antidiabetic drugs 59, 199
Inflammation and hyperparathyroidism 232
Inflammation, chronic 123
Inflammatory bowel disease 143
Inflammatory cells 248
Infliximab 263
Inotropic 72
Insulin 8, 50, 166, 217, 272
activates protein kinase B 295
antagonistic effects in liver 28
autoimmune hypoglycemia 169
autoimmune syndrome 151, 152, 155, 169
Insulin gene 180
Insulin on bone, effects of 44
Insulin receptor gene mutation 176
Insulin receptoropathies 139
Insulin resistance 113fc, 183, 234, 253, 255, 256
pathophysiological links with 113
Insulin resistance syndrome 139
Insulin resistance worsening 252
Insulin secretion 176
and clearance 233
biphasic 82f
defect in 136
mechanism of 82
Insulin sensitivity 168
effects on 110
Insulin-induced hypoglycemia 24
Insulin-like growth factor-1 16, 48, 50, 60, 113, 221, 228, 232, 292
Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 23, 232, 292
Insulinoma 91, 151
Insulin-regulated glucose transporter 98
Insulin-resistance syndrome 123
Intellectual disability 142
Interleukin-17 144
Interleukin-2 receptor alpha 144
Interleukin-6 228
International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study group 184
International Diabetes Federation 124, 188, 257, 258
Interstitial fibrosis 240
Intestinal absorption 83
Intestinal lipase inhibitor 260
Intracellular accumulation 252
Intraurethral administration of prostaglandin 284
Intrauterine growth retardation 177
IPEX syndrome 143
Irregular pulsatile secretion 230
Irreversible myocardial damage 241
Islet antigen-2 144
Isoforms of estrogen receptors 109
J
Jamaican vomiting sickness 157
Jaw malocclusion 196
K
Ketoconazole 8, 60, 112, 200
Ketogenesis, effect on 296
Kexin type 9 167
Kidney disease, chronic 33, 220, 227, 230
alterations in insulin/glucagon homeostasis 233
clinical manifestations 233
effect of 229t
endocrine function in 228t
gonadal axis abnormalities in women 231
mechanism of 228t
secondary diabetes due to endocrinopathies: effect on 237
supplementation with ergocalciferol 235
Kinetics of insulin secretion 81
Klinefelter syndrome 7, 99, 135, 136, 142, 145, 194
glucovigilance in men with 102
L
Lactic acidosis, risk of 220
Langerhans 80
islets of 83
Lanreotide 8, 60
Laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding 261
Laurence–Moon-Biedl syndrome 194
Leprechaunism 136, 139, 140
Leptin 15, 111, 249, 250, 261
Levofloxacin 162, 210
Levothyroxine 30
Lifestyle modification 259, 273
Ligand 72
Lipid
abnormalities 168
lowering drugs 167
metabolism 123
effect on 55
Lipocalin-2 3, 44
Lipodystrophic diabetes 136, 140, 142, 143
Lipodystrophy 7, 194, 254
Lipogenesis, promotion of 218
Lipolysis 175
Lipolytic enzyme 136
Lipoprotein lipase 248
high-density 124, 258
low-density 30, 125, 167
Lipotoxicity 251
Liraglutide 224, 260
Litchi-associated seasonal toxic encephalopathy 157
Liver
and kidney diseases 155
gluconeogenesis 112
glucose output 3
injury 253
isoenzyme deficiency 157
Lorcaserin 8
Low libido 280
Luteinizing hormone 100, 113, 228, 231
hypothalamic regulation of 111
pulsatile release of 230
M
Macroglossia 196
Macronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia 199
Macrovascular complications 89
Male fertility, pathophysiological mechanisms of 296
Male sperm, fertility capacity of 296
Malnutrition 236
Mammalian target of rapamycin 98
Massachusetts male aging study questionnaire 104
Maternal plasma glucose 174
Matrix metallopeptidase-13 266
Maturity-onset diabetes of young 136, 137, 143, 194
Mauriac syndrome 146
Meconium aspiration 177
Medicated urethral suppository for erections 284
Mediterranean-style diet 283
Medullary thyroid carcinoma, risk of 36
Megaloblastic anemia 143
Meglitinides 94
Melanin-concentrating hormone 12
Melanocortin 4 receptor 15, 29
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone 12
Membrane translocation of GLUT4 98
Meningioma 15
Menopausal hormonal therapy 118
Menopause 292, 293
Menorrhagia 291
Menstrual dysfunction 291
Menstruating women 183
Mesenchymal stem cells 248
Mesenchymal stem cells, apoptosis of 266
Metabolic acidosis 232, 236
Metabolic and storage diseases 156
Metabolic diseases, management of 247
Metabolic disorders 251
Metabolic economy 254
Metabolic health 217
and higher cardiovascular 101
on reproductive health, effects of 111
Metabolic regulation 3
Metabolic signals 291
Metabolic storage diseases 157
Metabolic syndrome 3, 44, 53, 67, 97, 99, 100, 104, 108, 118, 123, 183, 258
and polycystic ovary syndrome: metabolic menace 131
components of 126, 127
criteria for 258
diagnostic criteria for 124, 258
in endocrinopathy 123, 127
in endocrinopathy with hormone deficiencies 129
in endocrinopathy with hormone excess 128
PCOS overlap 131f
prevalence of 117
Metaiodobenzylguanidine scan 76
Metformin 8, 50, 93, 199, 219, 220, 272
activator of 5 220
Metformin
associated lactic acidosis 219
drug induced hyperprolactinemia 22
Methimazole 37, 155, 162
Methylene cyclopropyl glycine 157
Metreleptin 8, 169
Metyrapone 8, 60
Microarchitectural changes and bone strength 48
Micropenis 177
Mifepristone 8, 60, 162, 168, 200, 210
Mimic circadian rhythm 64
Mineral, crucial role in 265
Mineralocorticoid 53
antagonists, effects of 67
effects on glucose homeostasis 55
receptor 56
Mitochondrial diabetes 7, 138, 139, 142, 143
Mitochondrial dysfunction 251
Mitogen-activated protein kinase 56
Mitotane 60
Mitral valves and myocardium 242
Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 249
Monogenic diabetes 136, 139
due to defective insulin secretion 136
syndromes 135
Mood stabilizers 15
Motor neuropathy 142
Muscle weakness, progressive 142
Mutations 180
Mutations, single-gene 15
Myoblasts 248
Myocardial steatosis 253
Myocellular fat 253
Myoclonus and dementia 142
Myocytes 99
Myokines 29
Myopathy 196
Myotonia 142
Myotonic dystrophy 135, 136, 142
N
Naltrexone-bupropion 8
Naltrexone-bupropion sustained-release 260
National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III 257
National Health and Nutrition Examination survey 32
National Institutes of Health 114
Necrolytic migratory erythema 202
Neonatal
diabetes 7, 136138, 142, 178
hyperglycemia in preterm and low birth weight infants 179
hypoglycemia 175, 295
approach to 178fc
causes of 176
Nesidioblastosis 151
Net catabolic state 112
Neurodegeneration 142
Neuroendocrine tumor 201
Neurogenic symptoms 207
Neuroglucoprivation 76
Neuroglycopenia, onset of 206
Neuroglycopenic symptoms 206, 207
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome 225
Neuronal types 13
Neuropeptide Y 12
expression of 109
increased 29
Neutropenia 143
Niacin 167
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide 156
Nitric oxide 13
Nocturnal hypoglycemia 63
Nonalcoholic
fatty liver disease 6, 251
beneficial effects in 221
steatohepatitis 223
Nonhyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia 156
Noninsulin pancreatogenous hypoglycemia syndrome 152
Nonislet cell tumor hypoglycemia 153
Norepinephrine 8, 200
O
Obesity 251
and central obesity, diagnostic thresholds for 257t
and diabetes 255
drugs 260
Obstructive sleep apnea 196, 251
Octreotide 8, 60
long-acting release 166
Oligoamenorrhea 194, 291
Oocyte maturation 291
Optic atrophy 142
Oral contraceptive 183
Oral glucose tolerance test 17, 30, 88, 115, 168, 185, 195
Oral hypoglycemic agent 89, 158
Organic aciduria 157
Organic androgen deficiency 99
Organomegaly 196
Orlistat 8
Osilodrostat 60
Osmotic symptoms 37
Osteoblast-derived lipocalin-2 44
Osteocalcin 3, 9, 43, 44
reduced secretion of 55
Osteokines in glucose homeostasis, role of 43
Osteoporosis 7, 48
in diabetes, management of 274fc
management of 273
pharmacological management of 274
Osteoprotegerin 3, 43, 44, 49
Osteovigilance in diabetes 47
Ovarian steroidogenesis regulation of 111
Overnight dexamethasone suppression test 57
Overt diabetes 185
Ovulation 291
and fertility 291, 293
Ovulatory dysfunction 112
Oxidation of guanine residues 297
Oxidative stress 252
P
Palmitic acid-9-hydroxy stearic acid 262
Pancreas 54
secretion from 73
Pancreatectomy 194
Pancreatic
alpha-cells 28
beta-cell function 28
effects on 110
cancer 85, 90, 194
risk of 93
cytokeratin 93
defects in pathogenesis of
type 1 diabetes mellitus 83
type 2 diabetes mellitus 84
diabetes 6
disease 79, 194
ducts 80
enzyme replacement therapy 89
fat 253
hormones 80
hypoplasia 179
injury 85
islets 28
lipase 80
vigilance in diabetes 91
Pancreatitis acute 85
Pancreatitis
acute, risk of diabetes 92
chronic 85, 87, 88
risk of diabetes 92
incidence of 222
recurrent 85
severe acute 87
with antidiabetic drugs, risk of 93
Pancreatogenic
causes of 87t
diabetes management of 89
Paragangliomas 75
Parathyroid
disorders 45
hormone 3, 223
system 41
Paraventricular nuclei 12, 109
Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation 240
Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia 240
Pasireotide 8, 18, 20, 60, 197
worsens glycemic control 200
Peak bone mass 266
Pediatric endocrine society 175
Pegvisomant 8, 18
Penile prosthetics 285
Penis, erectile tissue of 284
Peptide hormones of brain 5
Periaqueductal gray 13
Perinatal stress 177
Peripheral arterial disease 37
Peripheral nervous system 142
Peritoneal dialysis 156
Permanent neonatal diabetes mellitus, cases of 180
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor
delta 43
gamma 50, 221, 222, 248, 262, 269
Persistent hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia of infancy 158
Persistent hypoglycemia, management of 178
Phentermine-topiramate 8
extended release 260
Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase 71
Pheochromocytoma 6, 74, 194, 200, 240
and cardiovascular risk 241
surgical treatment of 75
Phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors 283
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 28, 54, 163
Phosphofructokinase 2/fructose bisphosphatase 2 54
Pinealoma 15
Pioglitazone 8, 37, 38, 199, 272, 293
use of 63
Pituitary directed medical therapy 60
Pituitary disorders 14
Pituitary gonadotropin secretion 111
Pituitary in glucose regulation, role of 13
Pituitary macroadenoma 15
Pituitary tumors, treatment of 225
Plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone 236
Plasma c-peptide concentrations 158
Plasma glucose 175
and free T4 30
concentration in diabetes 206t, 207
measurement of 180
values 195
Plasma membrane 73
Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 249
Pluripotent stem cells 99
Polycystic ovary syndrome 8, 98, 113, 114, 140, 143, 167, 183, 291293
effect of 115
glucocrinological issues in management of 115
pathogenesis of 113
role of statins in 115
use of antidiabetic medications 115
Polyendocrinopathy 136
Polyglandular autoimmune endocrinopathy 7
Porphyria 142
Positron emission tomography 152
Postpartum care 295
Postprandial blood glucose 168, 204
Postprandial reactive hypoglycemia 153
Potassium 55
Potassium channel 180
Prader-Willi syndrome 15, 136, 142
Preadipocytes 248
Preconception period 294
Pregnancy and diabetes 294
Premature ovarian insufficiency 292
prevalence of 117
Primary hyperparathyroidism 47
Procollagen type 1 amino-terminal propeptide 49
Progesterone 3
Progestin
on metabolism, effects of 110
replacement study 118
Progestogen only contraceptives 116
Prognathism 196
Prohormone convertase-1 15
Proinflammatory
adipocytokines 34
cytokines 255
Prolactin 3, 14, 231
Prolactinoma 167
treatment of 98
Pro-opiomelanocortin 12, 15, 29, 109, 111
Propranolol 169
Proprotein convertase subtilisin 167
Prostate cancer 99
Protein 123
metabolism, effect on 55
tyrosine phosphatase 144
Psychotropic drugs 15
Ptosis 142
Puberty and menarche 290, 292
Puberty in men with diabetes 296
R
Rabson–Mendenhall syndrome 136, 139, 140, 142
Radioactive iodine uptake 219
Radioiodine ablation 8
Random plasma glucose 185
Reactive oxygen species 256, 297
Renal
and genitourinary system 143
cysts 143
dysfunction 143
dysfunction, progressive 143
failure, end-stage 236
impairment 234
Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system 43, 55, 236
Renin–angiotensin system 66
Reproductive dysfunction 230, 231
in women 290, 292
Reproductive health 297
in diabetes 184, 290
in men with diabetes 295
in women with diabetes 290
Resistin 111, 249
Retinal dystrophy 142
Retinoic acid 20
Retinol-binding protein 4 249
Rogers syndrome 136, 138
Rostral ventromedial medulla 77
Roux-en-Y gastric bypass 261
S
Salsalate 263
Sarcopenia 253
Sclerostin 44
Secrete pancreatic juices 80
Secretin-pancreozymin test 89
Selective estrogen receptor modulators 232
Sensorineural hearing loss 142
Serum thyroid-stimulating hormone 29
Serum trypsin measurement of 89
Sex
hormone-binding globulin 111, 113, 220, 291
levels 99
steroids 186
therapy, dual 281
Sexual
arousal 104
aversion disorder 280
desire 280
diagnosis 281
epidemiology 280
etiopathogenesis 280
nonpharmacological treatment 281
pharmacological treatment 281
dysfunction 7
in diabetes 184, 278, 295
major risk factors for 278
in men with diabetes 280
response cycle 279
arousal/plateau 279
desire/excitement 279
orgasm 279
resolution 280
Sheehan's syndrome 153
Sick sinus syndrome 241
Sildenafil 283
Sinus tachycardia 241
Sitagliptin 223
Skeletal muscle 3, 28, 29, 54
Skin and musculoskeletal system 143
Sleep disturbances 196
Small heterodimer partner 50
Sodium 55
Sodium-glucose cotransporter-1 inhibitors 30
Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors 48, 50, 94, 115, 188, 218, 224, 234, 260, 268, 272, 273, 274, 293
Somatostatin
analogs 8, 18, 170, 197
long-acting 166
receptor ligands 166
Somatostatinoma 6, 194
Sperm motility 184
Spermatogenesis 184, 297
impairment of 184
maintenance of 296
Spironolactone 67
Statins 239
Steatohepatitis 143
Steatorrhoea 93
Steroidogenic factor-1 109
Sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 248
Stiff-man syndrome 142
Strabismus 142
Stroke-like episodes 142
Sulfonylurea 8, 50, 94, 158, 179, 188, 218, 272
receptor-1 176
Supraventricular tachycardia 241
Sympathetic nervous system 29, 68
Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone 219
Syndromes associated with poor glycemic control 146
Syndromic diabetes
classification of 142, 145
diagnosing 145
Syndromic obesity 167
T
Tactful glycemic control, principles of 212
Tadalafil 283
Teratoma 15
Testicular and erectile dysfunction 184
Testosterone 3, 98, 100, 101, 230
enhances physical activity 99
increases 99
levels 99
replacement 8
therapy 105
with glucose metabolism 98, 99fc
Thiamine-responsive megaloblastic anemia syndrome 136, 142, 143
Thiazides 194, 196, 294
Thiazolidinediones 50, 94, 188, 221, 260, 269, 272
stimulate proliferator-activated receptor-gamma 38
Thrombocytopenia 143
Thyroglobulin 144
Thyroid
and arterial hypertension 125
and glucose intolerance 125
and lipid metabolism 124
and obesity 125
disease 32
disorders 27, 29
associated with hypoglycemia 154
prevalence of 32
symptoms of 33
dysfunction 4, 237, 239
abnormalities 227
effect of metformin on 36
in patients 31, 32
hormone 27, 154, 228
analogs 262
effect of 28
excess 201
on metabolic health, effect of 124
receptors 27
secretion of 240
peroxidase 144
stimulating hormone 8, 34, 144, 220, 229
Thyrotoxicosis 38, 167
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone 229
Thyrovigilance in diabetes 31
Thyroxine 229
Thyroxine-binding globulin 219
Tissue-specific effects on glycogen metabolism 55
Tissue transglutaminase 144
Toxic hypoglycemic encephalopathy 157
Toxic lipid metabolites 252
Trabecular bone score 275
Transient hyperglycemia 61
Transient hypoxia 175
Triglycerides, increased synthesis of 118
Triiodothyronine 34, 228, 229
Trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole 210
Trypsinogen 80
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha 34, 228, 249
Tumors 15
Turner's syndrome 7, 116, 135, 136, 142, 143, 145, 194
U
Ultradian oscillations 81
United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes study 218
United States Food and Drug Administration 168
Upper airway obstruction 196
Upstream stimulatory factor-1 50
Uremic toxins 236
Urinary metanephrine levels 75
V
Vacuum erection devices 284
Vardenafil 283
Vascular
complications 266
endothelial growth factor 266
to extravascular space 228
Ventricular
ectopic beats 240
hypertrophy: left, echocardiographic criteria for 240
tachycardia 240, 241
Ventromedial 109
Ventromedial nucleus 12
Visceral adipose tissue 248
Visceral adiposity index 258
Visfatin 249
Visual
field defect 105, 196
impairment 105
Vitamin D 3, 51, 265
deficiency 6, 8, 42, 45, 271
in glucose homeostasis, role of 42
metabolism 235
Voltage-dependent calcium channels 82
Volumetric computed tomography 258
von Gierke disease 157
W
Waist circumference 257, 293
Waist-to-hip ratio 257
Wasting syndrome 165
Weight loss 8, 202
Whipple's triad 148
White adipose tissue 27, 54
Wolcott–Rallison syndrome 143
Wolff–Chaikoff effect 229
Wolfram syndrome 7, 136, 138, 142
World Health Organization 294
X
X-chromosome haploinsufficiency 116
Xp haplotype insufficiency 116
Z
Zinc transporter 8 180
×
Chapter Notes

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