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Essentials of Biochemistry
Pankaja Naik
CHAPTER 1:
Cell and Membrane Transport
INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF LIVING CELL
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF A CELL AND ITS SUBCELLULAR COMPONENTS
Plasma Membrane
Membrane Lipids
Membrane Proteins
Membrane Carbohydrates
Functions of Cell Membrane
The Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm and its Organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Mitochondria (Powerhouse of Cell)
Nucleus
Structure of Nucleus
Functions of Nucleus
CYTOSKELETON
Functions of Cytoskeleton
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
Passive Transport or Passive Diffusion
Simple Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Active Transport
Primary Active Transport
Secondary Active Transport
Transport of Macromolecules Across the Plasma Membrane
Endocytosis
Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis
Exocytosis
CELL FRACTIONATION
MARKER ENZYMES
EXAM QUESTIONS
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 2:
Carbohydrate Chemistry
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION, AND FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
Functions of Carbohydrates
Classification of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides (Greek: Mono = one)
Oligosaccharides (Greek: oligo = few)
Polysaccharides (Greek: Poly = many) or Glycans
Homopolysaccharides (Homoglycans)
STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE
ISOMERISM
Ketose-aldose Isomerism
D and L Isomerism
Optical Isomerism
Epimerism
Anomerism
α and β Anomerism
MUTAROTATION
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MONOSACCHARIDES
Action of Strong Acids (Furfural Formation)
Action of Alkalies (Enolization)
Oxidation (Sugar Acid Formation)
Reduction to Form Sugar Alcohol
Action of Phenylhydrazine (Osazone Formation)
GLYCOSIDE FORMATION
DERIVATIVES OF MONOSACCHARIDES
Phosphoric Acid Ester of Monosaccharides
Importance
Amino Sugar
Importance of Amino Sugar
Deoxy Sugars
Sugar Acids
Sugar Alcohols
Neuraminic Acid
Sialic Acid
Importance
DISACCHARIDES
Maltose
Isomaltose
Lactose (Milk Sugar)
Sucrose (Common Table Sugar)
POLYSACCHARIDES (GLYCANS)
Homopolysaccharides or Homoglycans
Starch
Dextrin
Glycogen (Animal Starch)
Cellulose
Inulin
Heteropolysaccharides or Heteroglycans
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) or Mucopolysaccharides (Table 2.6)
Occurrence of GAGs
Functions of GAGs
Types of GAGs
GLYCOPROTEINS
Functions of Glycoproteins
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 3:
Chemistry of Lipids
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION AND FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
Definition of Lipids
Classification of Lipids
Simple Lipids
Complex or Compound Lipids
Derived Lipids
Functions of Lipids
FATTY ACIDS
Classification of Fatty Acids
Straight Chain Fatty Acids
Branched Chain Fatty Acids
Substituted Fatty Acids
Cyclic Fatty Acids
Functions of Fatty Acids
Numbering of Fatty Acid Carbon Atoms (Fig. 3.2)
Representation of Double Bonds of Fatty Acids
C-System
ω-or n-System
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS
Functions of Essential Fatty Acids (EFA)
Synthesis of Eicosanoids
Maintenance of Structural Integrity
Development of Retina and Brain
Skin Protector
Antiatherogenic Effect
REACTIONS OF LIPIDS
Saponification
Hydrogenation
Peroxidation
Rancidity
CHARACTERIZATION OF FAT(TESTS FOR PURITY OF FAT)
Saponification Number
Iodine Number
Acid Number
Reichert Meissl Number
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS OR TRIACYLGLYCERIDES OR NEUTRAL FAT
Functions of Triacylglycerols
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Classification of Phospholipids
Glycerophospholipids or Phosphoglycerides
Sphingophospholipids
Functions of Phospholipids
GLYCOLIPIDS (GLYCOSPHINGOLIPIDS)
Classification of Glycolipids
Cerebrosides (ceramide + monosaccharides)
Sulfatides (Ceramide + Monosaccharide + Sulfate)
Globosides (Ceramide + Oligosaccharide)
Gangliosides: (Cerebroside + Oligosaccharides + N-acetylneuraminic acid, NANA)
Functions of Glycolipids
CHOLESTEROL (ANIMAL STEROL)
Functions of Cholesterol
LIPOPROTEINS
Classes of Lipoproteins
Site of Synthesis and Functions of Lipoproteins
EICOSANOIDS
Prostaglandins
Classification of Prostaglandins
Functions of Prostaglandins
Thromboxanes
Nomenclature of Thromboxanes
Functions of Thromboxanes
Leukotrienes (LT)
Nomenclature of Leukotrienes
Functions of Leukotrienes
MICELLES, LIPID BILAYER AND LIPOSOMES
Micelles
Lipid Bilayer
Liposome (Artificially Formed Phospholipid Vesicles)
DETERGENTS
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 4:
Chemistry of Proteins
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL NATURE OF AMINO ACIDS
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
Classification Based on Chemical Nature of the Amino Acid in Solution
Neutral Amino Acids
Acidic Amino Acid
Basic Amino Acid
Classification Based on Chemical Structure of Side Chain of the Amino Acid
Aliphatic Amino Acids
Hydroxy Amino Acids
Sulfur Containing Amino Acids
Dicarboxylic Acid and their Amides
Diamino Acids
Aromatic Amino Acids
Imino Acids or Heterocyclic Amino Acids
Nutritional Classification of Amino Acids
Essential Amino Acids (Also Refer Chapter 11)
Nonessential Amino Acids
Metabolic Classification of Amino Acids
Classification Based on Nature or Polarity of Side Chain of Amino Acid
Importance of Amino Acids
MODIFIED OR NONSTANDARD AMINO ACIDS
Cystine
Hydroxyproline and Hydroxylysine
Desmosine and Isodesmosine
Gamma Carboxyglutamate
PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS
Physical Properties
Stereoisomerism
Optical Activity
Ionization of Amino Acids
Buffering Activity
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT PEPTIDES
Glutathione (GSH)
Functions of Glutathione
Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH)
Oxytocin
Vasopressin
Gastrin
Angiotensin
Bradykinin
Insulin
Glucagon
DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION AND FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
Definition
Classification of Proteins
Classification of Proteins Based on Functions
Catalytic Proteins or Enzymes
Transport Proteins
Storage Proteins
Contractile Proteins
Structural Proteins
Defence Proteins
Regulatory Proteins
Classification Based on Molecular Shape of the Proteins
Fibrous Proteins
Globular Protein
Classification of Proteins Based on Composition of Protein
Simple Proteins
Conjugated Proteins
Derived Proteins
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
Primary Structure of Proteins
Secondary Structure of Proteins
α-Helix
β-Pleated Sheet Structure or Stretched State Structure
Tertiary Structure
Tertiary Structure Stabilizing Forces
Quaternary Structure of Protein
Quaternary Structure Stabilizing Forces
Bonds Responsible for Protein Structure
Covalent Bond
Noncovalent Bonds
PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS
Colloidal Nature
Colloidal Osmotic Pressure
Molecular Weight
Solubility
Shape of the Protein
Hydration of Proteins
Amphoteric Nature and Isoelectric pH of the Proteins
Isoelectric pH of the Protein
Precipitation of Proteins
Salting Out Method
Precipitation at Isoelectric pH
Precipitation by Heavy Positiveor Negative Ions
Precipitation by Organic Solvents
DENATURATION OF PROTEINS
Denaturing Agents
Examples of Denatured Protein
Significance of Denaturation
Coagulation
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 5:
Plasma Proteins and Immunoglobulins
INTRODUCTION
PLASMA PROTEINS
Synthesis of Plasma Proteins
Separation of Plasma Proteins
Major Classes of Plasma Proteins (Table 5.1)
Albumin
Clinical Significance
Globulins
α1-Protease inhibitor (API) or also known as α1 antitrypsin (AAT)
Prothrombin
Ceruloplasmin (ferro-oxidase)
Haptoglobin
α 2-macroglobulin (AMG)
Hemopexin
Transferrin
C-reactive Protein (CRP)
β2-microglobulin
Immunoglobulins
Fibrinogen (Blood Clotting Factor I)
IMMUNOGLOBULINS (IG)
Structure of Immunoglobulins (Fig. 5.3)
Functions of Immunoglobulins (Antibody)
Immunoglobulin Classes
IgG (Heavy chain γ)
IgA (Heavy chain α)
IgM (Heavy chain μ)
IgD (Heavy chain δ)
IgE (Heavy Chain ε)
Disorders of Immunoglobulins
Multiple Myeloma
Amyloidosis
Bence Jones Proteins
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 6:
Enzymes
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF ENZYME
ZYMOGEN OR PROENZYME
COFACTORS (COENZYME AND ACTIVATOR)
HOW ENZYMES WORK
Energy Changes Occur during the Reaction
MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION
Lock and Key Model or Rigid Template Model of Emil Fisher
Induced Fit Model or Hand-in-glove Model of Daniel E Koshland (Fig. 6.3)
ENZYME CLASSIFICATION
EC-1 Oxidoreductases
Specific Example
EC-2 Transferases
Specific Example
EC3 Hydrolases
Specific Example
EC-4 Lyases
Specific Example
EC-5 Isomerases
Specific Example
EC-6 Ligases (Synthetases)
Specific Example
SPECIFICITY OF ENZYME ACTION
Types of Specificity
Substrate Specificity
Broad substrate specificity
Reaction Specificity
Stereo Specificity
FACTORS AFFECTING THE VELOCITY OF ENZYME REACTION
Effect of Substrate Concentration
Effect of Enzyme Concentration
Effect of Hydrogen Ion Concentration pH
Effect of Temperature
Effect of Product
Effect of Activators and Coenzymes
Effect of Time
Effect of Physical Agents
Effect of Inhibitors
ENZYME KINETICS
Michaelis-Menten Equation
Significance of Km (Michaelis Constant)
Significance of Vmax (Maximal Velocity)
Lineweaver-Burk Plot or Double-Reciprocal Plot
ENZYME INHIBITION
Reversible Inhibitor
Competitive or Substrate Analogue Inhibitor
Non-competitive Inhibitors
Uncompetitive Inhibitor
Irreversible Inhibitor
Group Specific Irreversible Inhibitor
Substrate Analogue Irreversible Inhibitor or Affinity Labels
Suicide Inhibitor or Mechanism-based Inactivation
Clinical Application of Enzyme Inhibitor
ALLOSTERIC ENZYME
Feedback Allosteric Inhibition
ISOENZYME
Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH)
Clinical Applications of LDH
Creatine Kinase (CK)
Clinical Application
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ENZYMES
Diagnostic Use of Enzymes
Alanine Transaminase (ALT)
Aspartate Transaminase (AST)
Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP)
Acid Phosphatase (ACP)
Amylase
Creatine Kinase (CK)
Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH)
Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA Seminogelase)
Therapeutic Use of Enzymes
Analytical Use of Enzymes
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Question (LAQ)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 7:
Vitamins
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS
Classification
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FAT SOLUBLE AND WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Thiamine (Vitamin B1)
Structure
Active Form of Thiamine
Sources
Functions
Nutritional Requirements
Deficiency Manifestations
Antimetabolites
Thiamine Assay
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
Structure
Active Form of Riboflavin
Sources
Functions
Nutritional Requirements
Deficiency Manifestations
Riboflavin Assay
Niacin (Vitamin B3)
Structure
Active Form
Sources
Functions
Nutritional Requirement
Deficiency Manifestation
Therapeutic Uses of Niacin
Toxicity
Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5)
Structure
Active form
Source
Functions
Nutritional Requirement
Deficiency Manifestations
Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)
Structure
Active Form of Vitamin B6
Sources
Functions
Nutritional Requirement
Deficiency Manifestations
Vitamin B6 Assay
Therapeutic Uses
Toxicity
Biotin
Structure
Sources
Active Form of Biotin
Functions
Nutritional Requirements
Deficiency Manifestation
Folic Acid (Vitamin B9)
Structure
Active Form of Folic acid
Source
Functions
Nutritional Requirements
Deficiency Manifestations
Therapeutic Uses
Cobalamin (Vitamin B12)
Structure
Active form of Vitamin B12
Sources
Absorption, Transport and Storage
Functions
Nutritional Requirements
Deficiency Manifestations
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
Structure
Active Form of Ascorbic Acid
Sources
Functions
Nutritional Requirements
Deficiency Manifestation
Therapeutic Uses
Toxicity
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Vitamin A
Structure
Active Form
Absorption, Transport and Storage
Sources
Functions of Vitamin A
Nutritional Requirements
Deficiency Manifestation
Therapeutic Use of Vitamin A
Hypervitaminosis A
Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol)
Structure
Absorption, Transport and Activation of Vitamin D
Active Form of Vitamin
Sources
Functions
Nutritional Requirement
Deficiency Manifestation
Hypervitaminosis D
Therapeutic Use
Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
Structure
Sources
Absorption, Transport and Storage
Functions
Nutritional Requirements
Deficiency Manifestation
Hypervitaminosis E
Vitamin K
Structure (Fig. 7.27)
Sources
Absorption, Transport and Storage
Functions of Vitamin K
Nutritional Requirements
Deficiency Manifestation
Hypervitaminosis K
Therapeutic Use
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Solve
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 8:
Chemistry of Hemoglobin
INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF HEMOGLOBIN
BINDING SITES FOR OXYGEN, HYDROGEN (H+) AND CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) WITH HEMOGLOBIN
TENSE (T) AND RELAXED (R) FORMS OF HEMOGLOBIN
The Tense (T) Form
The Relaxed (R) Form
Cooperative Oxygen Binding of Hemoglobin
Effect of pH and Carbon Dioxide Concentration on Binding of Oxygen to Hemoglobin and Bohr Effect
Bohr Effect
Effect of 2-3 Bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) on Binding of Oxygen to Hemoglobin
Importance of 2-3 BPG
TYPES OF NORMAL AND ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBIN
Normal Hemoglobin
Adult Hemoglobin (HbA1)
Minor Component of Normal Adult Hemoglobin (HbA2)
Fetal Hemoglobin (HbF)
Glycosylated Hemoglobin (HbA1C)
Abnormal Hemoglobin
Thalassemia
Types of thalassemia
Sickle Anemia and Sickle Hemoglobin (Hbs)
HbC or Cooley's Hemoglobin
HbM
DERIVATIVES OF HEMOGLOBIN
Normal Hemoglobin Derivatives
Oxyhemoglobin
Reduced Hemoglobin
Carbaminohemoglobin or Carboxyhemoglobin
Abnormal Hemoglobin Derivatives
Methemoglobin
Carboxyhemoglobin (COHb)
Sulfhemoglobin
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Question (LAQ)
Short Notes
Solve
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 9:
Chemistry of Nucleic Acids
INTRODUCTION
NUCLEIC ACIDS
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES
Nitrogen Containing Bases of RNA and DNA
Purine Bases
Pyrimidine Bases
Pentose Sugars Present in RNA and DNA
Attachment of Phosphate to Pentose Sugar
Functions of Nucleotides
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT NUCLEOTIDES
ATP
AMP
C-AMP (Cyclic Adenosine 3’, 5’-monophosphate) (Fig. 9.7)
GDP and GTP
C-GMP (Cyclic guanosine 3’, 5’-monophosphate)
UDP (Uridine Diphosphate)
CTP (Cytidine Triphosphate) and CDP (Cytidine Diphosphate)
SYNTHETIC ANALOGUES OF NUCLEOTIDES OR ANTIMETABOLITES
DNA STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Structure of DNA
The Watson-Crick DNA Double Helical Structure
Chargaff's Rule
Functions of DNA
ORGANIZATION OF DNA
Prokaryotic DNA
Eukaryotic DNA
Different Levels of Organization of Eukaryotic DNA
RNA STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Differences between RNA and DNA
Types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Other Nuclear and Cytoplasmic RNAs
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 10:
Biological Oxidation
INTRODUCTION
FREE ENERGY (∆G) AND REDOX POTENTIAL
ENZYMES, COENZYMES AND ELECTRON CARRIERS INVOLVED IN BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION
Enzymes and Coenzymes
Electron Carriers
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
Components and Structural Organization of the Respiratory Chain
Structural Organization of Components of Respiratory Chain
Reactions of Electron Transport (Respiratory) Chain
Complex I: NADH–Q Oxidoreductase
Complex II: Succinate–Q Oxidoreductase
Complex III: Q–Cytochrome C Oxidoreductase
Complex IV: Cytochrome c Oxidase–O2
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
Sites of ATP Synthesis
Mechanism of Oxidative Phosphorylation
Chemiosmotic Theory
P : O Ratios for Mitochondrial Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation
Respiratory Control
SUBSTRATE LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION
INHIBITORS OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
Inhibitors of Electron Transport Chain Proper (Fig. 10.10)
Inhibitors of Oxidative Phosphorylation (F0F1 ATPase)
Uncouplers of Oxidative Phosphorylation
Ionophores
SHUTTLE SYSTEMS FOR OXIDATION OF EXTRAMITOCHONDRIAL NADH
The Malate-Aspartate Shuttle System
Glycerol Phosphate Shuttle
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Question (LAQ)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 11:
Nutrients and their Role in Nutrition
INTRODUCTION
NUTRIENTS
Macronutrients
Micronutrients
ROLE OF NUTRIENTS
Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate Requirement
Fats
Fat Requirement
Protein and Amino Acids
Essential Amino Acids
Requirement of Essential Amino Acid
Dietary Fiber
Importance of Fiber
Significance of Dietary Fiber in Medicine
Adverse Effect of Dietary Fiber
NITROGEN BALANCE
Nitrogen Equilibrium
Positive Nitrogen Balance
Negative Nitrogen Balance
NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF PROTEINS
Assessment of Protein Quality
Chemical Score or Amino Acid Score
Net Protein Utilization
Protein Efficiency Ratio
Biological Value
Mutual Supplementation of Proteins
Protein Requirement
Vitamins and Minerals
RECOMMENDED DAILY ALLOWANCE
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Measurement of Energy
Factors Affecting Energy Expenditure
BASAL METABOLIC RATE
Definition of BMR
Measurement of Basal Metabolism
Factors Affecting BMR
Normal Values of BMR
THERMOGENIC EFFECT (SPECIFIC DYNAMIC ACTION, SDA) OF FOOD
Physical Activity
Environmental Temperature
BALANCED DIET
Definition
Balanced Diet Suggested by ICMR
NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS
Protein Caloric Malnutrition (PCM) or Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM)
Classification of PEM
Obesity
Causes of Obesity
Obesity as a Health Risk
EXAM QUESTIONS
Short Notes
Solve
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 12:
Carbohydrate Metabolism
INTRODUCTION
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT OF CARBOHYDRATES
Digestion of Carbohydrates
Digestion in Mouth
Digestion in Stomach
Digestion in Intestine
Absorption of Carbohydrates
Active Transport
Facilitative Transport
Transport of Carbohydrates
Metabolic Fate of Carbohydrates
GLYCOLYSIS
RAPOPORT-LUEBERING CYCLE
FATE OF PYRUVATE
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
Regulation of Citric Acid Cycle
GLUCONEOGENESIS
Definition
Precursors for Gluconeogenesis
Location of Gluconeogenesis
Reactions of Gluconeogenesis (Fig. 12.10)
Regulation of Gluconeogenesis
CORI CYCLE OR LACTIC ACID CYCLE
GLUCOSE-ALANINE CYCLE
GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
Glycogenesis
Definition
Reactions of Glycogenesis
Glycogenolysis
Definition and Location
Reactions of Glycogenolysis
Lysosomal Degradation of Glycogen
Regulation of Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis
Regulation of Glycogenesis
Regulation of Glycogenolysis
Glycogen Storage Disease
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
URONIC ACID PATHWAY (GLUCURONIC ACID CYCLE)
GALACTOSE METABOLISM AND GALACTOSEMIA
METABOLISM OF FRUCTOSE
Clinical Findings
Treatment
BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL AND ITS REGULATION
Renal Control Mechanism
GLYCOSURIA
DIABETES MELLITUS
GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST (GTT)
Oral Glucose Tolerance Test
Intravenous Glucose Tolerance Test
Types of Glucose Tolerance Curves
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (Laqs)
Short Notes
Solve the Following
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 13:
Lipid Metabolism
INTRODUCTION
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS
Digestion
Digestion in Small Intestine
Hydrolysis of Dietary Triacylglycerols
Hydrolysis of Dietary Phospholipids
Hydrolysis of Cholesterol Ester
Products of Lipid Digestion (Micelle Formation)
Absorption of Lipids by Intestinal Mucosal Cells
Transport
FATTY ACID OXIDATION
Activation of Fatty Acid
Transport of Acyl-CoA into Mitochondria by Carnitine Transport System
Reactions of β-oxidation of Fatty Acid
Sequence of Reactions of β-oxidation
Energy Yield from the b-Oxidation of Fatty Acids
Regulation of β-oxidation
β-oxidation of a Fatty Acid with an Odd Number of Carbon Atoms
Peroxisomal Fatty Acid Oxidation (Fig. 13.9)
Disorder of Peroxisomal Fatty Acid Oxidation
α-oxidation
Role of α-oxidation
Disorders associated with Impairment of α-fatty Acid Oxidation
ω-oxidation
METABOLISM OF KETONE BODIES
Formation of Ketone Bodies (Ketogenesis)
Fate or Utilization of Ketone Bodies
Regulation of Ketogenesis
Disorders of Ketone Body Metabolism
Ketosis
Ketoacidosis
DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS (LIPOGENESIS)
Transport of Acetyl-CoA from Mitochondria to Cytosol
Carboxylation of Acetyl-CoA to Malonyl-CoA
Reactions of Fatty Acid Synthase Complex
Regulation of Fatty Acid Synthesis
SYNTHESIS OF LONG CHAIN FATTY ACIDS FROM PALMITATE
Microsomal Elongation of Fatty Acids
Mitochondrial Elongation of Fatty Acids
TRIACYLGLYCEROL METABOLISM
Biosynthesis of Triacylglycerols
Fate of Triacylglycerol formed in Liver and Adipose Tissue
PHOSPHOLIPID METABOLISM
Biosynthesis of Glycerophospholipids
Synthesis of Phosphatidylserine and Phosphatidylinositol (see Fig. 13.21)
Synthesis of Phosphatidylcholine (Lecithin) and Phosphatidylethanolamine (Cephalin)
Synthesis of Cardiolipin (Fig. 13.22)
Synthesis of Plasmalogens
Biosynthesis of Sphingomyelin
Degradation of Glycerophospholipids
Degradation of Sphingomyelin
GLYCOLIPID METABOLISM
Biosynthesis of Glycolipids
Degradation of Glycolipids
SPHINGOLIPIDOSES (SPHINGOLIPID STORAGE DISEASE)
LIPOPROTEIN METABOLISM
Metabolism of Chylomicrons (Fig. 13.28)
Metabolism of VLDL
Metabolism of LDL (Fig. 13.29)
Metabolism of HDL (Fig. 13.30)
Disorders of Lipoprotein Metabolism
Hyperlipoproteinemia
Hypolipoproteinemia
Abetalipoproteinemia
Tangier Disease or an Alpha-lipoproteinemia
ADIPOSE TISSUE METABOLISM
Synthesis of Triacylglycerol in Adipose Tissue
Degradation of Triacylglycerols in Adipose Tissue
Regulation of Adipose Tissue Metabolism (Fig. 13.32)
FATTY LIVER
Causes of Fatty Liver
Factors that Cause Fatty Liver
Lipotropic Factors
CHOLESTEROL METABOLISM
De Novo Synthesis of Cholesterol
Stage 1: Synthesis of Mevalonate from Acetyl-CoA through HMG-CoA
Stage 2: Formation of Isoprenoid Unit
Stage 3: Formation of Squalene (Condensation of Six Isoprenoid Units)
Stage 4: Cyclization of Squalene to Lanosterol
Stage 5: Formation of Cholesterol from lanosterol
Regulation of De Novo Synthesis of Cholesterol (Fig. 13.36)
Feedback Regulation
Hormonal Regulation
Nutritional Regulation
Transport of Cholesterol (Fig. 13.37)
Transport of Dietary Cholesterol from Intestine
Transport of Cholesterol from Liver to peripheral tissue
Transport of Cholesterol from Peripheral Tissue to Liver
Degradation of cholesterol
Formation of Bile Acids
Formation of Steroid Hormones (Fig. 13.39)
Formation of Vitamin D
Excretion of Cholesterol
Blood Cholesterol
Hypercholesterolemia
ATHEROSCLEROSIS
Factors Responsible for Development of Atherosclerosis
Age
Sex
Genetic Factor
Hyperlipidemia
Level of HDL
Hypertension
Cigarette Smoking
Diabetes Mellitus
Minor or Soft Risk Factors
ALCOHOL METABOLISM
Biochemical Alterations due to Alcohol
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Solve the Following
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 14:
Protein Metabolism
INTRODUCTION
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS
Digestion in Mouth
Digestion in Stomach
Digestion in Intestine by Pancreatic Enzymes
Endopeptidase
Exopeptidase
Activation of Pancreatic Proenzymes
Digestion in Intestine by Intestinal Proteoses
Absorption of Amino Acids
Amino Acid Pool
PROTEIN TURNOVER
NITROGEN BALANCE
Nitrogen Equilibrium
Positive Nitrogen Balance
Negative Nitrogen Balance
CATABOLISM OF AMINO ACIDS
FORMATION OF AMMONIA
Transamination
Metabolic Significance of Transamination Reactions
Deamination
Oxidative Deamination by Glutamate Dehydrogenase
Oxidative Deamination by Amino Acid Oxidases
Nonoxidative Deamination by Amino Acid Dehydratase
METABOLIC FATE OF AMMONIA
Transport of ammonia to the liver
Transport of Ammonia in the Form of Glutamine
Transport of Ammonia in the Form of Alanine
Formation of Urea
UREA CYCLE
Energy Cost of Urea Cycle
Regulation of Urea Cycle
Metabolic Inborn Errors of Urea Cycle
Symptoms
Treatment
Blood Urea
CATABOLISM OF CARBON SKELETON OF AMINO ACIDS
METABOLISM OF GLYCINE
Synthesis of Glycine
Catabolism of Glycine
Metabolic Importance of Glycine (Fig. 14.16)
Metabolic Disorders of Glycine
Primary Hyperoxaluria
Non-Keto Hyperglycinemia
METABOLISM OF AROMATIC AMINO ACIDS
Metabolism of Phenylalanine and Tyrosine
Catabolism of Phenylalanine and Tyrosine
Metabolic Disorders of Phenylalanine and Tyrosine
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Tyrosinemia
Alkaptonuria
Albinism
Biologically Important Compounds Derived from Tyrosine
Biosynthesis of Catecholamines
Biosynthesis of Melanin Pigment
Biosynthesis of Thyroxine and Tri-iodothyroxine
Metabolism of Tryptophan
Kynurenine Pathway
Serotonin pathway
Serotonin
Melatonin
Metabolic Disorder of Tryptophan
Hartnup's Disease
METABOLISM OF SULFUR CONTAINING AMINO ACIDS
Metabolism of Methionine
Transfer of methyl group of methionine (Transmethylation Reactions)
Conversion of Demethylated Portion of the Methionine to Cysteine and Cystine (Fig. 14.27)
Synthesis of Methionine from Homocysteine (Fig. 14.27)
Metabolism of Cysteine and Cystine
Synthesis of Cysteine and cystine
Catabolism of Cystine and Cysteine
Importance of Cysteine
Metabolic Disorders of Sulfur Containing Amino Acids
Cystinuria (Cystin-lysinuria)
Cystinosis (Cystine Storage Disease)
Homocystinuria
ONE CARBON METABOLISM
Sources of One Carbon Groups (Fig. 14.33)
Utilization of one Carbon Groups (Fig. 14.33)
METABOLISM OF BRANCHED CHAIN AMINO ACIDS (FIG. 14.34)
Catabolism of Branched Chain Amino Acids
Metabolic Disorder of Branched Chain Amino Acids
Maple Syrup Urine Disease (MSUD) or Branched Chain Keto Aciduria
METABOLISM OF HYDROXY GROUP CONTAINING AMINO ACIDS
Metabolism of Serine
Synthesis of Serine
Catsabolism of Serine
Importance of Serine
Metabolism of Threonine
Catabolism of Threonine
Metabolism of Alanine
Synthesis and Catabolism of Alanine
METABOLISM OF ACIDIC AMINO ACIDS
Metabolism of Glutamic Acid
Synthesis of Glutamic Acid
Catabolism of Glutamic Acid
Importance of Glutamic Acid
Metabolism of Glutamine
Synthesis of Glutamine
Degradation of Glutamine
Importance of Glutamine
Metabolism of Aspartic Acid
Synthesis of Aspartic Acid
Degradation of Aspartic Acid
Functions of Aspartic Acid
Metabolism of Aspargine
Synthesis of Aspargine
Degradation of aspargine
METABOLISM OF IMINO ACID
Metabolism of Proline
Synthesis of Proline
Degradation of Proline
Importance of Proline
Metabolic Disorders of Proline
Hyperprolinemia Type-I
Hyperprolinemia Type-II
METABOLISM OF BASIC AMINO ACIDS
Metabolism of Arginine
Synthesis of Arginine
Degradation of Arginine
Importance of Arginine
Metabolic Disorders of Arginine
Metabolism of Histidine
Degradation of Histidine
Importance of Histidine
Metabolic Disorders of Histidine
Metabolism of Lysine
Catabolism of Lysine
Importance of Lysine
Metabolic Disorder of Lysine
Periodic Hyperlysinemia
Persistent Hyperlysinemia
BIOGENIC AMINES
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Solve the Following
Multiple choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 15:
Integration of Metabolism and Metabolism in Starvation
INTRODUCTION
INTEGRATION OF METABOLISM
Definition
INTEGRATION OF METABOLISM AT CELLULAR LEVEL
Conversion of Carbohydrates into Fats and Fat to Carbohydrate
Conversion of Carbohydrates into Proteins and Proteins into Carbohydrates
Conversion of Proteins to Fats and Fats into Proteins
INTEGRATION OF METABOLISM AT TISSUE OR ORGAN LEVEL
Role of Liver
Role of Skeletal Muscle
Role of Adipose Tissue
Role of Heart Muscle
Role of Brain
METABOLISM IN STARVATION
Definition
Fuel Reserve of a Normal Healthy Person
Phases of Starvation
METABOLIC CHANGES OCCUR DURING SHORT-TERM STARVATION
Changes in Carbohydrate Metabolism and Role of Liver
Changes in Protein Metabolism and Role of Muscles
Changes in Fat Metabolism and Role of Adipose Tissue
METABOLIC CHANGES OCCUR DURING PROLONGED STARVATION
Changes in Carbohydrate Metabolism in Prolonged Starvation
Changes in Fat Metabolism in Prolonged Starvation
Changes in Protein Metabolism in Prolonged Starvation
Effect on BMR
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Solve the Following
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 16:
Water Metabolism
INTRODUCTION
IMPORTANCE OF WATER
TOTAL BODY WATER (TBW) AND ITS DISTRIBUTION
Distribution of Water
Factors Affecting Distribution of Water
NORMAL WATER BALANCE
Water Intake
Water Output
Urinary Water Loss
Insensible Water Loss
Sensible Perspiration
Gastrointestinal Water Loss
ELECTROLYTES
Distribution of Electrolytes
REGULATION OF WATER AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)
Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF)
DISORDERS OF WATER AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCES
Dehydration
Dehydration due to Pure Water Deficiency, without Loss of Electrolytes, Called Simple Dehydration
Dehydration due to Combined Deficiency of Water and Electrolyte, Sodium
Overhydration or Water Intoxication
EXAM QUESTIONS
Short Notes
Solve the Following
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 17:
Mineral Metabolism
INTRODUCTION
METABOLISM OF SODIUM, POTASSIUM AND CHLORIDE
Sodium
Plasma Sodium
Clinical Conditions Related to Plasma Sodium Level Alterations
Potassium
Clinical Conditions Related to Plasma Potassium Level Alterations
Chloride
Clinical Conditions Related to Plasma Chloride Level Alterations
METABOLISM OF CALCIUM, PHOSPHORUS AND MAGNESIUM
Calcium
Plasma Calcium
Regulation of Plasma Calcium Level (Fig. 17.1)
Clinical Conditions Related to Plasma Calcium Level Alterations
Phosphorus
Clinical Conditions Related to Plasma Phosphorus Concentration Alterations
Magnesium
Serum Magnesium
Clinical Conditions Related to Plasma Magnesium Concentration Alterations
METABOLISM OF SULFUR
METABOLISM OF TRACE ELEMENTS (MICROMINERALS)
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Plasma Copper
Inborn Errors of Copper Metabolism
Fluorine (F)
Deficiency Symptoms
Iodine (I2)
Deficiency Manifestation
Iron (Fe)
Disorders of Iron Metabolism
Manganese (Mn)
Deficiency Manifestation
Molybdenum (Mo)
Selenium (Se)
Deficiency Manifestations
Zinc (Zn)
Deficiency Manifestation
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Solve
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 18:
Hemoglobin Metabolism
INTRODUCTION
SYNTHESIS OF HEME
Stages of Heme Synthesis
Biosynthesis of δ-Aminolevulinic Acid (δ-ALA)
Formation of Porphobilinogen (PBG)
Formation of Porphyrins and Heme
Regulation of Heme Synthesis
DISORDER OF HEME BIOSYNTHESIS
Porphyrias
Classification of Porphyria
Clinical Symptoms of Porphyrias
Acquired Porphyria
BREAKDOWN OF HEMOGLOBIN
FATE OF BILIRUBIN
Uptake of Bilirubin by Liver
Conjugation of Bilirubin
Secretion of Bilirubin into Bile
Excretion of Bilirubin
JAUNDICE
Classification of Jaundice
Prehepatic or Hemolytic Jaundice
Hepatocellular or Hepatic Jaundice
Post Hepatic or Obstructive Jaundice
Neonatal or Physiologic Jaundice
INHERITED HYPERBILIRUBINEMIAS
Gilbert's Syndrome
Crigler-Najjar Syndrome
Dubin-Johnson Syndrome
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Solve
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 19:
Purine and Pyrimidine Nucleotide Metabolism
INTRODUCTION
BIOSYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
DE NOVO BIOSYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
Precursors for the De Novo Synthesis of Purine
Major Steps of De Novo Synthesis of Purine Nucleotides
Regulation of De Novo Synthesis of Purine Nucleotide (Fig. 19.3)
Concentration of PRPP
Feedback Regulation
SYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES BY SALVAGE PATHWAY
Salvage Reaction (Fig. 19.4)
CATABOLISM OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
DISORDERS OF PURINE CATABOLISM
Gout
Classification of Gout
Treatment of Gout
Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome
Treatment
Xanthinuria
IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISORDERS OF PURINE METABOLISM
Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) Deficiency
DE NOVO BIOSYNTHESIS OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES
Precursors for the De Novo Synthesis of Pyrimidine (Fig. 19.8)
Major Steps for De Novo Synthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotide (Fig. 19.9)
Regulation of De Novo Synthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotides
CATABOLISM OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES (FIG. 19.11)
DISORDERS OF PYRIMIDINE CATABOLISM
Disorder of pyrimidine synthesis
Orotic Aciduria
Reye's Syndrome
EXAM QUESTIONS
Short Notes
Solve
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 20:
Replication, Transcription and Translation
INTRODUCTION
REPLICATION (DNA SYNTHESIS)
Prokaryotic Replication
Stages of Replication
Proofreading
Eukaryotic Replication
TRANSCRIPTION (RNA SYNTHESIS)
Basic Requirements for RNA Synthesis
Template
Substrate
Enzyme
Transcription in Prokaryotes
Stages of Transcription
Transcription in Eukaryotes
Eukaryotic RNA Polymerase
Eukaryotic Promoter Sites (Fig. 20.7)
Post-transcriptional Processing
m-RNA processing
t-RNA Processing
r-RNA Processing
GENETIC CODE
Characteristics of Genetic Code
WOBBLE HYPOTHESIS FOR CODON-ANTICODON INTERACTIONS
TRANSLATION (PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS)
Stages of Eukaryotic Translation
Activation of Amino Acid
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
FOLDING AND PROCESSING (POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION)
Amino terminal modifications
Loss of signal sequence
Covalent modification of proteins
Proteolytic processing
INHIBITORS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
PROTEIN TARGETING AND DEGRADATION
Secretory Membrane Protein Targeting
Nuclear and Mitochondrial Protein Targeting
Protein Degradation/Protein Turnover
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 21:
Regulation of Gene Expression and Mutation
INTRODUCTION
GENE EXPRESSION
Types of Gene Regulation
Positive Regulation
Negative Regulation
Types of Genes
Inducible Gene
Constitutive Gene
REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION IN PROKARYOTES
LACTOSE OPERON OR LAC OPERON
Structure of the Lac Operon (Fig. 21.1)
Regulation of Lac Operon
Negative Regulation by Lac Repressor in Absence of Lactose and Presence of Glucose
Positive Regulation by Induction of Expression, in Presence of Lactose and Absence of Glucose
Positive Regulation by Catabolite Repression in Presence of Both Glucose and Lactose
MUTATIONS
Causes of Mutations
Types of Mutations (Fig. 21.3)
Base Substitution or Point Mutation
Frame Shift Mutations (Fig. 21.5)
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 22:
Genetic Engineering
INTRODUCTION
RECOMBINANT DNA
In Vitro Recombinant DNA
Chimeric DNA
Construction of Recombinant DNA
Fragmentation of DNA (Restriction Fragments) by Restriction Endonuclease Enzyme
Isolation of Specific Human DNA
Insertion of Isolated Human DNA into Vector to form Chimeric or Hybrid DNA Molecule
Joining of Two Different Cut DNA Fragmentsby DNA Ligase
CLONING OF THE DNA
APPLICATIONS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
DNA LIBRARY
Genomic DNA Library
Complementary DNA (cDNA) Library
TECHNIQUE FOR IDENTIFYING DNA SEQUENCE
Gel Electrophoresis
Blots Transfer Techniques
Southern or DNA Blots Transfer
Northern or RNA Blots Transfer
Western or Protein Blots Transfer
RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM
POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION
Events of the PCR
A PCR Cycle Consists of Three Steps:
Applications of PCR
Diagnostic Importance
Forensics and Legal Medicine
Studies of Molecular Evolution
EXAM QUESTIONS
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 23:
Mechanism of Hormone Action
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES
Classification Based on Chemical Structure
Peptide or Protein Hormones
Amine Hormones Or Amino Acid Derivatives
Steroid Hormones
Classification Based on Mechanism of Hormone Action
MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTIONAT CYTOSOLIC OR NUCLEAR LEVEL
CELL MEMBRANE RECEPTOR MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION
c-AMP Second Messenger
Phosphatidylinositol/Calcium Second Messenger
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 24:
Acid-Base Balance
INTRODUCTION
ACIDS, BASES AND BUFFERS
NORMAL PH OF THE BODY FLUIDS
Metabolic Sources of Acids and Bases which Tend to Alter pH of the Body Fluids
Metabolic sources of acids
Fixed Acids or Nonvolatile Acids
Volatile Acids
Metabolic Sources of Bases
REGULATION OF BLOOD PH
BUFFER SYSTEMS AND THEIR ROLE IN ACID-BASE BALANCE
Blood Buffers
Bicarbonate Buffer System (HCO3– /H2CO3)
Phosphate Buffer System (HPO4– – /H2PO4–)
Protein Buffer
RESPIRATORY MECHANISM INACID-BASE BALANCE
RENAL MECHANISM IN ACID-BASE BALANCE
Exchange of H+ for Na+ of tubular fluid
Reabsorption of bicarbonate from tubular fluid
Formation of Ammonia and Excretion of Ammonium Ions (NH4+) in the Urine
Excretion of H+ ions as H2PO4– in urine
ACIDOSIS AND ALKALOSIS
Metabolic Acidosis
Compensatory Mechanisms
Respiratory Acidosis
Compensatory Mechanisms
Metabolic Alkalosis
Compensatory Mechanisms
Respiratory Alkalosis
Compensatory Mechanisms
Mixed acid-Base disturbances
ANION GAP
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Solve
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 25:
Organ Function Tests
INTRODUCTION
LIVER FUNCTION TESTS
Classification of Liver Function Tests
Liver Function Tests Based on Excretory Function
Tests Based on Bilirubin Metabolism
Serum Bilirubin Estimation by Van Den Bergh Reaction
Urine Bilirubin
Urobilinogen in Urine
Dye Excretion Test for Excretory Function
Bromosulfophthalein Excretion Test
Tests Based on the Detoxification Function
Hippuric Acid Test
Determination of Blood Ammonia
Determination of Serum Bilirubin
Tests Based on Synthetic Function
Determination of Serum Albumin and Globulin
Determination of Prothrombin Time
Tests Based on Metabolic Function of Liver
Tests Related to Carbohydrate Metabolism
Tests related to Lipid Metabolism
Tests Related to Protein Metabolism
Enzymes in Diagnosis of Liver Disease
Serum Transaminases
Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP)
RENAL FUNCTION TESTS
Urine Analysis
Physical Examination
Volume
Chemical Examination
Microscopic Examination
Serum and Urine Markers of Renal Function
Serum Creatinine and urea
Test for Proteins in Urine
Estimation of Glomerular Filtration Rate
Clearance Test
Creatinine Clearance Tests
Urea Clearance Test
Inulin Clearance Test
Tests of Renal Tubular Function
Urine Concentration Test (Fluid Deprivation Test)
Urine Dilution Test
Acid Load Test or Ammonium Chloride Loading Test
Phenolsulfonphthalein (PSP) Test or Phenol Red Test
THYROID FUNCTION TESTS
Major Thyroid Function Tests
Serum Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
Serum Free T3 and T4
Serum Total T4 and T3
Thyroid Autoantibodies
LIPID PROFILE TESTS
Total Serum Cholesterol
Normal Values and Interpretation
Serum Triglycerides (TG)
Normal Values and Clinical Interpretation
HDL Cholesterol
Principle
Normal Values and Clinical Significance of HDL Cholesterol
LDL Cholesterol
Normal Values and Clinical Interpretation
CARDIAC MARKERS
Creatine Kinase (CK)
Reference Values
Clinical Interpretation
Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH)
Reference values
Clinical Interpretation
Serum Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST)/Serum Glutamate Oxaloacetate Transaminase (SGOT)
Reference Values
Clinical interpretation
Myoglobin (Mb)
Clinical Interpretation
Cardiac Troponin
Clinical Interpretation
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Solve the Following
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 26:
Radioisotopes in Medicines
INTRODUCTION
RADIOACTIVITY
Nature of Radioactivity
Properties of Radioisotopes
Penetrating Ability
Radioactive Decay
Ionization
Unit of Radioactivity
USE OF RADIOISOTOPES IN MEDICINE
Therapeutic Applications of Radioisotopes
Diagnostic Applications of Radioisotopes
RADIATION HAZARDS
Somatic Radiation Hazards
Immediate Effects
Delayed Effects
Genetic Radiation Hazards
RADIATION HEALTH SAFETY AND PROTECTION
Prevention of External Exposure
Prevention of Internal Exposure
EXAM QUESTIONS
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 27:
Free Radicals and Antioxidants
INTRODUCTION
FORMATION OF REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES
Enzyme Reactions in which Free Radicals are By-products
Enzyme Reactions in Which Free Radicals are Functional Products
Intracellular Signaling Free Radical
Cellular Defense Mechanism
EXOGENOUS CAUSES OF FORMATION OF FREE RADICAL
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
Protein
DNA
ANTIOXIDANT
Oxidative Stress
Action of Antioxidant
Types of Antioxidant System
Enzymatic Antioxidant System or Scavenger Enzymes
Nonenzymatic (Nutrients) Antioxidant System
EXAM QUESTIONS
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 28:
Detoxification (Metabolism of Xenobiotics)
INTRODUCTION
DETOXIFICATION AND BIOTRANSFORMATION
MECHANISM OF DETOXIFICATION OFXENOBIOTICS
PHASE I REACTIONS
Oxidation
Hydroxylation
Oxidation of Alcohols and Aldehydes to Acids
Oxidation of Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Oxidative Deamination of Amines
Oxidative Dealkylation of Hydrocarbons
Reduction
Hydrolysis
PHASE II REACTIONS
Conjugation Reaction
Conjugation with Glucuronic Acid
Conjugation with Glycine
Conjugation with Glutamine
Conjugation with Cysteine
Conjugation with Glutathione (GSH)
Conjugation with Acetic Acid (Acetylation)
Conjugation with Sulfate (Sulfation)
Conjugation by Methylation
Conjugation with Thiosulfate
Conjugation with British Antilewisite (BAL)
EXAM QUESTIONS
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 29:
Cancer
INTRODUCTION
CHARACTERISTICS OF CANCER CELL
Differentiation and Anaplasia
Rate of Growth
Invasion and Metastasis
Biochemical Changes which Occur in Cancer Cell
TYPES OF CANCER
CARCINOGENESIS (MOLECULAR BASIS OF CANCER)
CARCINOGENS
Chemical Carcinogens (Table 29.1)
Initiators of Carcinogenesis
Promoters of Carcinogenesis
Action of Chemical Carcinogens (Fig. 29.1)
Physical Carcinogens
Mode of Action of Radiation
Biologic Carcinogens
DNA Oncogenic Viruses
RNA Oncogenic Viruses
Mechanism of Viral Carcinogenesis
PROTO-ONCOGENES AND ONCOGENES
TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES
APOPTOSIS
TUMOR MARKERS
Oncofetal Oncogenes
Hormones
Carbohydrate Markers
Proteins
Enzymes
CANCER AND DIET
EXAM QUESTIONS
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 30:
Environment and Health
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND THEIR EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH
Water Pollution
Natural Impurities
Man-made Impurities or Pollutants
Effect of Water Pollutant on Human Health
Biological Water Borne Diseases
Chemical Water Borne Disorders
Air Pollution
Air Pollutants
Causes of Air Pollution
Sources of Air Pollution
Effect of Air Pollution on Human Health
Effect of Air Pollution on Social and Economic State
Adverse Effect of Some Air Pollutants
METABOLIC RESPONSES OR ADAPTATIONS TO AN ALTERED ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE
HEAT STRESS
Thermoregulatory Responses
Vasodilation
Sweating
Decrease in Heat Production
Effects of Heat Stress
Heat Stroke
Symptoms
Treatment
Heat Exhaustion
Heat Cramps
Heat Syncope
COLD STRESS
Thermoregulatory Responses
Shivering Thermogenesis
Nonshivering or Chemical Thermogenesis
Metabolic Adaptations Occur during Chemical Thermogenesis
Effect of Cold Stress
Hypothermia
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 31:
Biomedical Waste Management
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
DIFFERENT LOCATIONS OF BIOMEDICALS WASTE GENERATION
TYPES OF HAZARDS
Infection
Genotoxicity and Cytotoxicity
Chemical Toxicity
Radioactivity Hazards
Physical Injuries
Public Sensitivity
BIOMEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT PROCESS
Various Steps in Biomedical Waste Management
Importance of Segregation
How are Wastes to be Segregated?
Storage of Biomedical Waste after Segregation
Transport
Treatment of Biomedical Waste
Disposal of Biomedical Waste
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
CHAPTER 32:
Connective Tissue
INTRODUCTION
BASIC COMPONENTS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF COLLAGEN
Functions of Collagen
Structure of collagen
Structure of α-chain of Collagen
Formation of collagen fibrils
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ELASTIN
Functions of Elastin
Structure of elastin
Cross-Links of Elastin
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF PROTEOGLYCANS
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF GLYCOPROTEINS
DISORDERS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Osteogenesis imperfecta
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome
Epidermolysis bullosa
Marfan's Syndrome
Scurvy
Symptoms seen in Scurvy
Lathyrism
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 33:
Muscle
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLE
Striated Muscle
Smooth Muscle
STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE (FIGS. 33.1A TO D)
Protein Composition of Muscle Fibers
Contractile Protein
Regulatory proteins
Minor or accessory proteins of myofibril
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Biochemical Events Occurring during Muscle Contraction
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Stage 5
Source of Energy in Muscle Contraction
MUSCLE DISORDERS
Muscular Dystrophy
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 34:
Neurotransmitters
INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW OF THE NERVE CELL
Synapses
Presynaptic Bouton or Knob
Synaptic Cleft
Postsynaptic Membrane
CLASSIFICATION OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
MECHANISM OF RELEASE OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Excitatory Neurotransmitters
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
REGULATION OF ACTION OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
DIFFERENT COMMON NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Acetylcholine
Release and Action
Catecholamines
Synthesis
Storage and Release
Functions of Catecholamines
Serotonin or 5-Hydroxytryptamine
Storage and Release
Functions
GABA (Gamma Aminobutyric Acid)
Synthesis
Receptors and Action
Functions of GABA
Histamine
Functions
Degradation
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQ)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
CHAPTER 35:
Laboratory Investigation Techniques
INTRODUCTION
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Definition
Technique
Classification of Chromatography
Paper Chromatography
High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
ELECTROPHORESIS
Definition
Electrophoresis Apparatus (Fig. 35.5)
Classification of Electrophoresis
COLORIMETRY
Principle
Components of the Colorimeter (Fig. 35.7)
Beer's Law
Lambert's Law
Calculations
FLAME PHOTOMETRY
Principle
Components of the Flame Photometer (Fig. 35.8)
An Aspirator/Nebulizer/Automizer
Burner and Flame
Monochromator/Filter
Phototube/Detector
Readout/Galvanometer
Technique
IMMUNOCHEMICAL TECHNIQUES (RIA AND ELISA)
Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
Disadvantages of Radioimmunoassay
ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay or Enzyme Immunoassay)
Technique
Difference between RIA and ELISA
EXAM QUESTIONS
Long Answer Questions (LAQs)
Short Notes
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
Glossary
Reference Values for Selected Biochemical Laboratory Tests
INDEX
TOC
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