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Nursing Research
Renjith Augustine
UNIT 1:
Introduction to Nursing Research
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
BASIC RESEARCH TERMS
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF RESEARCH IN NURSING
Florence Nightingale (1859)
Nursing Research (1900–1970)
Nursing Research (1970–2005)
METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Definition
Steps in problem-solving method
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Definition
Characteristics of Scientific Method
Steps in scientific method
RESEARCH
DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH
DEFINITIONS OF NURSING RESEARCH
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH
PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
KINDS OF RESEARCH
1. Quantitative Research and Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
2. Applied Research and Basic Research
Applied Research
Basic Research
3. Exploratory and Confirmatory
SCOPE OF NURSING RESEARCH
PROBLEMS IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN NURSING
ROLES OF A NURSE IN RESEARCH
Uses of the research finding
UNIT 2:
Overview of Research Process
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS
TYPES OF RESEARCH
Basic Research
Applied Research
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
ETHICS IN NURSING RESEARCH
Historical Background
Declaration of Helsinki's Report in 1954
Belmont Report in 1974
1. Principle of Beneficence
ETHICAL DILEMMA
HEALTH SYSTEMS RESEARCH AND SOCIAL RESEARCH
Health Systems Research
Functions of Health Systems Research
Social Research
Purposes of Social Research
Stages of Social Research (steps)
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE
Definitions
Importance
Steps in Evidence-based Practice
Step I: Asking the questions
Step II: Locating the resources
Step III: Critically appraising the evidence
Step: IV: Integrating information to implement a decision
Step V: Evaluating the outcome
Barriers to Evidence-based practice
Individual barriers
Organizational barriers
Environmental barriers
Educational barriers
MODELS AND THEORIES FOR EBP
1. The CURN Model
2. The Stetler Model
3. The ACE Star Model
UNIT 3:
Research Problem
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS
DEFINITIONS
Six Conditions for a Research Problem
Six Components of a Problem Statement
IDENTIFICATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
Sources of a Problem
Personal experiences
Literary sources
Existing theories
Professional experience
Social issues
Previous research
Brainstorming
Justification of the Problem
Criteria for the Selection of the Problem
Relevance of the problem (significant to the nursing profession)
Originality
Feasibility of the problem
Ethical consideration
Personal motivation
Researcher's qualification
Current problems and needs
DEFINING THE PROBLEM
A Statement of problem (Formulation of a problem statement)
1. Written in an Interrogative Statement Form
Declarative form
Interrogative form
2. Includes the Population
3. Includes the Variables
4. Empirically Tested
Steps in Formulation of Research Problem
The steps in formulating the research problem are as follows:
Characteristics of a Good Research Problem
Research Objectives
Characteristics
A research objective will be SMART
Objectives should be MRFLOU
Types of a Research Objective
General objectives
Specific objectives
Need for a Research Objective
1 Focus
2 Avoid
3 Organize
4 Direction
Research Variables
Independent and dependent variables
Research variable
Demographic variables
Extraneous variables
UNIT 4:
Review of Literature
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS
Meaning
Purposes of review of literature
Identification of research problem and development and refinement of research questions or hypothesis
Orientation of what is known
Determination of any gap in the body of research
Identify the need for any replication of previous study
USES
(A) Research Activities
1. Qualitative process
2. Quantitative process
(B) Nonresearch Activities
SOURCES
Primary sources
Secondary sources
1. Electronic database sources
Database
Databases useful in nursing
Other commonly used electronic database sources are:
2. Printed sources
Criteria for locating and reviewing the literature
STEPS IN CONDUCTING REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1. Screening the References
2. Abstracting and Recording Notes
3. Organizing the Review
4. Writing a Literature Review
a. Introduction
b. Data-based literature
c. Summary
UNIT 5:
Hypothesis
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
Definitions
Meaning
TYPES
Based on Statistical Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
Alternative Hypothesis
Based on Direction
Directional Hypothesis
Examples:
Nondirectional hypothesis
Examples:
Based on the Number of Variables
Simple Hypothesis
Examples:
Composite Hypothesis
Based on the Relationship
Associative Hypothesis
Causal Hypothesis
FORMULATION
IMPORTANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
SOURCES
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
ASSUMPTIONS
USES
LIMITATIONS
DELIMITATIONS
UNIT 6:
Research Design and Approaches
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS
Purposes of Research Design
1. To provide answer to research questions
2. To control variance
Elements of Research Design
PARTS
CHARACTERISTICS
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
A. Experimental Research Designs (observation under controlled conditions)
Characteristics of an Experimental Research
1. Manipulation
2. Control
3. Randomization or random allocation or random assignment
Symbolic representations
1. Post-test Only control design or after only design
Approach
2. Pretest Post-test Control Group Design
Approach
3. Solomon's Four-group Design
Approach
4. Factorial Design
Approach
5. Randomized Block Design
Approach
6. Crossover Design
Quasi-experimental Designs (Manipulation and Control/Randomization)
1. Nonrandomized control group design
Approach
2. Time-series design
Approach
Pre-experimental Research Design (Manipulation but No Control/Randomization)
Non-experimental Design (No Manipulation, Control or Randomization)
The different types of non-experimental research designs are:
1. Descriptive design
2. Correlational design
These types of research designs include:
3. Developmental research design
4. Epidemiological design
5. Survey research design
C. Other Additional Research Designs
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
Characteristics of Qualitative Research Design
Phases of Qualitative Research Design
RESEARCHER QUALITIES
Types of qualitative research
1. Phenomenological Research
Characteristics
2. Ethnographic Research
Introduction
History
Characteristics
Ethical Consideration
3. Grounded Theory
Introduction
Meaning
Goals
Historical Perspective
1. Decade of Discovery (1960–1970)
2. Decade of Development (1970–1980)
3. Decade of Diffusion (1980–1990)
4. Decade of Diversification (1990–At present)
Characteristics
Elements
Steps
Concept formation
Concept Development
Concept Modification and Integration
Production of Research Report
Conclusion
4. Case Study
Introduction
Definition
Applications (uses)
Types
Steps
Limitations
5. Historical Research
Concept of historical research
Steps of historical research
Characteristics
6. Action Research
Data collection methods
UNIT 7:
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
Theory-Practice Research Linkage
DEFINITIONS
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS
PURPOSES
FRAMEWORK
USES OF FRAMEWORK
TESTING
ELEMENTS
Clinical Nursing Research
THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
COMPONENTS OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Statement Hierarchy
Formulation of the conceptual framework
1. Identify the variables involved in the study and defining it:
2. Point out the dependent and intervening variables and developing relational statement:
3. Develop hierarchical statement sets:
4. Show the direction of the study by constructing a conceptual map:
Conclusion
UNIT 8:
Sampling
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS
Basic sampling concepts
a. Population
b. Target population/theoretical population
c. Accessible population/study population
d. Sample
e. Element
f. Sampling frame
g. Sampling bias
h. Sampling criteria
i. Representativeness
j. Sampling error
k. Statistical terms in sampling
FACTORS INFLUENCING SAMPLING
PURPOSES
CHARACTERISTICS
Sampling and Census
SAMPLING PROCESS
1. Define the population to be selected
2. Determine the sampling frame
3. Determine the sample size (n)
4. Control for bias and error
Control for sampling bias
Control for sampling error
5. Select the sample
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Probability sampling technique (Random sampling)
Simple random sampling
Lottery Method
The use of computer
Stratified random sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Cluster random sampling
Nonprobability sampling (nonrandom sampling)
Purposive sampling (judgment sampling)
Convenience sampling
Quota sampling
Snowball sampling
Approaches to qualitative sampling
PROBLEMS IN SAMPLING
SAMPLING ERRORS AND NONSAMPLING ERRORS
Sampling errors
Nonsampling errors
Sampling Errors, Sampling Size and Sampling Bias
Types:
Sample Size and Sampling Error
Sampling Bias
1. Selection bias:
2. Consciously biased selection:
Conclusion:
UNIT 9:
Tools and Methods of Data Collection
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
Data Collection Process
Data Collection Method
Data may be of two types. They are:
Primary data
Secondary data
METHODS AND TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION
A. Biophysiological Methods
Types of biophysiological methods
B. Observational Method
Types of observation
Participant observation
Non-participant observation
Structured observation
Unstructured observation
1. Rating scale
Examples:
Types of rating scales
1. Descriptive rating scale
2. Numerical rating scale
3. Graphic rating scale
4. Comparative rating scale
Uses of rating scale
Principles for preparing rating scale
2. Checklist
3. Anecdotal Records
Items in anecdotal records
C. Questioning Method
1. Questionnaires
Types of questionnaires
2. Opinionnaires
3. Attitude scale
Types of attitude scale
a. Semantic differential scale
b. Likert scale
Scoring of Likert scale
c. Q-sorts scale
d. Visual Analogue Scale (VAS)
Uses of VAS scale
D. Interview method
Types of interview
Structured interview
Unstructured interview
Steps in interviewing
E. Psychological methods
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
QUALITATIVE METHODS
Scales and other forms for structured self-report
Item analysis
Methods
Interpretation
Methods
Interpretation
Distracter Analysis
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
Validity
Types of validity
1. Face validity
2. Content validity
3. Criterion validity
4. Construct validity
Factors influencing validity
Threats to internal validity
Threats to external validity
Reliability
Estimation of reliability
1. Stability
Test-retest method
Example
2. Equivalence
Inter-rater method
Steps
In quantitative data
In qualitative data
Intrarater method
Steps
In quantitative data
In qualitative data
3. Internal consistency
Pilot study
Objectives of pilot study
Purposes of pilot study
Advantages of pilot study
PROCEDURE FOR DATA COLLECTION
Data collection procedure
UNIT 10:
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS
Purposes of data analysis
ORGANIZATION AND PRESENTATION OF DATA
Objectives of organization and presentation of data
Tabular representation of data
Principles
a. Title
b. Body of the table
Captions
Stubs
Numerical facts
Informative aids
Unit of measurement
c. Footnotes
Graphical representation of data
Points to be considered while preparing graph
Advantages of graphical representation
Disadvantage of graphical representation
Types of graphical representation
Histogram
Steps
Frequency curve
Steps
Frequency polygon
Steps
Cumulative frequency curve (Ogive curve)
Less than cumulative frequency curve
Steps
More than cumulative frequency curve
Line diagram
Diagrammatic representation of data
1. Bar diagram
Principles
Simple bar diagram
Multiple bar diagram
Subdivided bar diagram
Duodirectional bar diagram
2. Pie diagram
3. Pictogram
DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS
1. Identify the research question
2. Collecting and describing the data
3. Summarizing and displaying the data
4. Analyzing and interpreting the data
Analysis of quantitative data
Descriptive statistics
MEASURES TO CONDENSE DATA
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Characteristics of Central Tendency
Mean
C. Mean by step deviation method
D. Geometric Mean (GM)
Median
Mode
Example
Mode of grouped data
Example
MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
• Range
• Quartiles
• Deciles
• Percentiles
• Mean deviation
• Standard deviation
MEASURES OF RELATIONSHIP
Correlation coefficients
Types of correlation
A. Based on the direction of change
1. Positive correlation
Example
2. Negative correlation
Example
B. Based on the number of variables
C. Based on the linearity
Methods of studying correlation
1. Scatter graph or plot method
Figure I (Perfect positive correlation)
Figure II (Perfect negative correlation)
Figure III (Positive correlation)
Figure IV (Negative correlation)
Figure V (Spurious correlation)
2. Karl Pearson's method
Spearman's rank Method
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Estimation
Testing of Hypothesis
Parametric test
Non-parametric test
Levels of measurement (Scales of measurement)
Nominal level
Ordinal level
Interval level
Ratio level
Example 1
Power of the test
t-test
Paired t-test
Situations
Data set
Hypothesis
Test statistics
Decision rule
Example
Solution
Test statistics
Table value
Result
Conclusion
Unpaired t test
Situation
Data set
Hypothesis
Test statistics
Decision rule
Chi square test (Χ2)
For example
Hypothesis
Test statistics
Decision rule
Example
Hypothesis
Solution
Table value
Result
Restrictions of application of chi-square test
Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative Analysis Process
1. Comprehending
2. Synthesizing
3. Theorizing
4. Recontextualizing
Steps of Qualitative Data Analysis
UNIT 11:
Communication and Utilization of Research Finding
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
COMMUNICATION OF RESEARCH RESULT
METHODS OF COMMUNICATION
Written reports
Oral report
RESEARCH UTILIZATION
DEFINITIONS
Research utilization is a multiple-step process that involves:
Roger's theory of diffusion of innovations
Barriers of Research utilization
Barriers
Issues of Research Utilization
CONCLUSION
UNIT 12:
Research Report and Articles
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
Characteristics of Good Research Report
GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
STEPS IN WRITING A REPORT
STYLE AND LAYOUT OF WRITING RESEARCH REPORT
Layout of the report
Format for writing a research report
RESEARCH CRITIQUE
Purposes
Guidelines for a Quantitative Study Critique
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Purpose
Objectives
Hypotheses
Conceptual framework
Variables
Review of literature
Design
Setting
Data collection
Data analysis
Interpretation and discussion of the data
Conclusion and recommendations
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Definition of a Research Article
Features:
Title and Abstract
Main text
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
Citations
Writing the reference or bibliography
Annotated Bibliography
DEFINITIONS
Indicative annotations
Informative annotations
Evaluative annotations
Combination annotations
UNIT 13:
Research Proposal
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS
CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
PURPOSES OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
PARTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
(10-part statement)
1. Statement of the problem
2. Significance of the problem
3. Definitions, assumptions, limitations and delimitations
4. Review of related literature
5. Hypothesis
6. Methods
7. Time schedule
8. Sources of information
9. References and bibliography
10. Submitting a research proposal to a funding agency
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Methodology
4. Work Plan (including description of project staff)
5. Budget (including explanatory note on major budget posts)
6. Plan for Administration, Monitoring, and Utilization of Results
UNIT 14:
Computers in Nursing Research
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
Computers in Nursing Research
Purposes of Computers in Nursing Research
Phases of Research Process
1. Role of computers in conceptual phase
2. Role of computers in literature review
3. Role of computers in designing and planning phase
4. Role of computer for sample size calculation
5. Role of computers in empirical phase
6. Role of computers in data analysis
7. Role of computers in research dissemination
STATISTICAL PACKAGES AND THEIR APPLICATION
• Microsoft Excel
• SPSS
• SAS
• Minitab
Conclusion
STATISTICAL INDEX
INDEX
TOC
Index
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