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Nursing Research & Statistics
Rajesh Kumar
1:
Introduction to Nursing Research
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD
Problem-Solving Model
SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND RESEARCH
Characteristics of Scientific Method
Limitations of Scientific Method
Steps of Scientific Method
METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE IN NURSING
RESEARCH AND NURSING RESEARCH
Research
Nursing Research
Characteristics of High-Quality Research
Objectives/Purposes of Research
HISTORY OF NURSING RESEARCH
Major Landmarks in History of Research at International Level
Major Landmarks in History of Nursing Research at National Level (India)
TYPES OF RESEARCH
Basic Research vs Applied Research (Table 1.2)
Descriptive vs Analytical
Quantitative vs Qualitative Research (Table 1.3)
Conceptual vs Empirical
Other Types of Research
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
SCOPE AND AREAS OF NURSING RESEARCH
Research in Nursing Education
Research in Nursing Practice
Nursing Management and Administration
Indian Nursing Council (INC)
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN NURSING
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE (EBP)
Origin of Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)
Definitions
Critical Features of Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)
Steps of Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)
Importance of EBP in Nursing
Barriers to EBP in Nursing
2:
Research Problem, Research Question and Hypothesis
INTRODUCTION
Defining the Research Problem
RESEARCH PROBLEM VS PROBLEM STATEMENT
SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
STEPS OF IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
COMPONENTS OF A PROBLEM STATEMENT
RESEARCH QUESTION
Need of a Research Question
Elements of a Good Research Question
Types of Research Question
Evaluation Criteria for Research Problem
VARIABLES
Classification of Variables
Dependent Versus Independent Variables
Research Variables
Extraneous Variables
Confounding Variables
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
Why Operational Definitions?
FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Characteristics of Research Objectives (Clement, 2012)
Need/Importance of Research Objectives
Tips for Writing Research Objectives
HYPOTHESIS
Definitions
Purposes of Hypothesis in Research
Sources of Hypothesis
Personal Experiences
Nursing Literature
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
Classification of Hypotheses
Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis
Elements of Hypotheses
Wording of Hypotheses
3:
The Research Process: Overview
INTRODUCTION
FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH TERMS
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS: OVERVIEW
The Conceptual Phase
Formulating Research Problem
Searching the relevant Literature Review
Developing Conceptual Framework
Formulating Hypothesis
The Design and Planning Phase
Selecting a Research Design
Developing Intervention Protocol
Selecting the Population
Selecting the Sample
Selecting the Specific Research Instruments
Ethical Consideration
The Empirical Phase
Collecting the Data
Preparing the Data for Analysis
The Analytic Phase
Analyzing the Data
Interpreting of Data
The Dissemination Phase
Communicating the Findings
Utilizing the Findings
STEPS IN QUALITATIVE STUDY
The Conceptual Phase
Design and Planning Phase
Empirical/Analytic Phase
Dissemination Phase
4:
Ethical Issues in Research
INTRODUCTION
What is Unethical Research?
CODE OF ETHICS
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES FOR PROTECTING HUMAN RIGHTS
Beneficence
Respect for Human Dignity
Justice
MEASURES TO PROTECT THE RIGHTS OF STUDY PARTICIPANTS
Informed Consent
Types of Consent
Institutional Ethical Committee (IEC) or Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Risk-Benefits Assessment
Protecting Vulnerable Population
Obtaining Consent from Vulnerable Population
ETHICAL ISSUES IN ANIMAL RESEARCH
5:
Review of Literature
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY REVIEW
FACTORS AFFECTING LITERATURE REVIEW
NEED/PURPOSES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW
TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
Traditional or Narrative Literature Review
Systematic Review of Literature
SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
Types of Sources
Strengths of Primary Sources
STEPS OF LITERATURE REVIEW
ORGANIZATION OF LITERATURE REVIEW
TIPS FOR LITERATURE REVIEW
Review Appraisal Tactics
6:
Theories and Conceptual Models in Research
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGY OF THEORY
Theory
Model and Conceptual Framework
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Aim
Purposes
The Conceptual Framework
Component
Concepts/Variables
Relationship
Statement Hierarchy
Theoretical Framework
NATURE AND TYPES OF THEORIES
IMPORTANCE OF THEORY, MODELS AND FRAMEWORK IN RESEARCH
TYPES OF THEORY AND CORRESPONDING RESEARCH
How Theory Used in Research?
Theory Generating Research
Theory Testing Research
Theory as Conceptual Framework in Research
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEORY, RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
PROCESS OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT
7:
Research Designs
INTRODUCTION
Research Approach and Its Types
Research Design
Definitions
Characteristics of a Good Research Design
Factors Affecting Selection of Study Design
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research Design
Definition
Validity of Quantitative Research Designs
Threats to Internal Validity
Threat to External Validity
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
Characteristics of Experimental Design
Types of Experimental Design
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Key Features of True Experimental Research
Methods of Randomization
Measures Used for Control in Experimental Design
Developing a Formal Protocol for Experimental Design
Steps of Conducting Experimental Design
Types of True Experimental Designs
Solomon Four–Group Design
Factorial Design
Crossover Design or Repeated Measures Design
Randomized Block Design (Levels-by-Treatment Design)
Strength of Experimental Design
Limitations of Experimental Design
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Types of Quasi-experimental Design
Types of Time Series Design
Counterbalanced Design
Strength of Time Series Design
Limitation of Time Series Design
Strength of Quasi-Experimental Study
Limitations of Quasi-Experimental Study
PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Types of Pre-Experimental Deigns
Strength of Pre-Experimental Design
Limitations of Pre-Experimental Design
NONEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Classification of Nonexperimental Research Designs
Descriptive Research
Univariate Descriptive Studies
Comparative Studies
Exploratory Studies
Example:
Epidemiological Research
Descriptive Studies
Correlational Studies
Types of Correlational Research
Strength of Correlation Studies
Limitations of Correlational Studies
Analytic Studies
Case Control Study (retrospective design)
Strength of Case Control Studies
Limitation of Case Control Studies
Cohort Studies (Prospective study)
Ex-Post Facto Design
Prospective Design
Example:
Retrospective Design
Limitations of Retrospective Studies
Developmental Research Studies
Longitudinal Design
Strength of Panel Studies
Limitations of Panel Studies
Strength of Longitudinal Study
Limitations of Longitudinal Study
Cross Sectional Design
Strength of Cross Sectional Studies
Limitations of Cross Sectional Studies
SURVEY RESEARCH
Definitions of Survey
Types of Survey Research
Strength of Survey Research
Limitations of Survey Research
OTHER IMPORTANT RESEARCH DESIGNS
Evaluative Studies
Meta-analysis
Metasynthesis
Secondary Analysis
Methodological Studies
Qualitative Research Design
Validity of Qualitative Research Study
Types
PHENOMENOLOGY
Definitions
Types of Phenomenology
Steps in Phenomenology
Strength of Phenomenology
Limitations of Phenomenology
ETHNOGRAPHY
Definition
Steps in Ethnography
Strength of Ethnography
Limitations of Ethnography
GROUNDED THEORY
Definition
Steps of Grounded Theory
Strength of Grounded Theory
Limitations of Grounded Theory
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Definition
Steps of Historical Research
Strength of Historical Research
Limitations of Historical Research
CASE STUDY
Definition
Steps of Conducting Case Study
Strength of Case Study
Limitations of Case Study
ACTION RESEARCH
Definition
Steps of Conducting Action Research
The Delphi Technique
Strength of Delphi Technique
Limitations of Delphi Technique
8:
Sample and Sampling Techniques
INTRODUCTION
SAMPLING TERMS
Sampling Criteria
IMPORTANCE OF SAMPLING IN RESEARCH
CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF A GOOD SAMPLE
TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Probability Sampling Techniques
Simple Random Sampling Techniques
Methods of Simple Random Sampling
Types of Simple Random Sampling
Strengths of Simple Random Sampling
Limitations of Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Strengths of Stratified Random Sampling
Limitations of Stratified Sampling Techniques
Systematic Random Sampling
Steps of Systematic Random Sampling
Types of Systematic Random Sampling Technique
Strengths of Systematic Random Sampling
Limitations of Systematic Random Sampling
Cluster/Multistage Sampling
Steps of Cluster Sampling
Strengths of Cluster Sampling
Limitations of Cluster Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
Types of Nonprobability Sampling Techniques
Convenience Sampling
Strengths of Convenience Sampling
Limitations of Convenience Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Types of Snowball Sampling
Strengths of Snowball Sampling
Limitations of Snowball Sampling
Quota Sampling
Strengths of Quota Sampling
Limitations of Quota Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Consecutive/Total Enumeration Sampling
Strengths of Consecutive Sampling
Limitations of Consecutive Sampling
FACTORS AFFECTING SAMPLING/SAMPLE SIZE
Nature/Type of Research Design
Sampling Method
Homogeneity of Population
Availability of Resources
Effect Size
Population Characteristics
Problems in Sampling
Steps in Sampling in Quantitative Studies
For Cross Sectional Studies
Sample Size for Experimental Studies
9:
Data Collection Methods in Research
INTRODUCTION
PURPOSES OF DATA COLLECTION
TYPES OF DATA
SOURCES OF DATA
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Data Collection Plan
Instruction for Developing Data Collection Plan
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Selection Criteria for Method of Data Collection
Questionnaire
Steps of Construction of Self-Report Methods
Methods of Administration of Questionnaire
Strengths of Questionnaire
Limitations of Questionnaire
Requirements for a Good Questionnaire
Rating Scale
Types of Rating Scale
Likert Scale
Uses of Likert Scale
Development of Likert Scale
Tips for Preparing Likert scale
Strengths of Likert Scale
Limitations of Liket Scale
Semantic Differential Scale
Uses of Semantic Differential Scale
Strengths of Semantic Differential Scale
Limitations of Semantic Differential Scale
Visual Analogues Scale (VAS)
Uses and Strengths of Visual Analogues Scale
Limitations of Visual Analogues Scale
Graphic Rating Scale
Checklist
Tips for Constructing a Good Checklist
Strengths of Checklist
Limitations of Checklist
Interview Method
Types of Interview
Guidelines for Preparing a Qualitative Interview (Unstructured and Semi-structured)
Kvale's Nine Types of Questions with Examples are Given Here
Practical Guidelines for Preparation for Conducting Interview
Practical Guidelines for Conducting an Interview
Methods of Conducting Interview
Strengths of Interview
Limitations of Interview
Problems in Conducting Interview
Observation Method
Elements of Observation
Phenomena Amenable to Observation
Observation Methods
Strengths of Observation Method
Limitations of Observation Method
Biophysiological Methods
Types of Biophysiological Methods
Purposes of Biophysiological Methods
Strengths of Biophysiological Methods
Limitations of Biophysiological Methods
Record Analysis
Strength of Records
Limitations of Records
Q–SORT
Strengths of Q–Sort
Vignettes
Steps of Constructing Vignettes
Strength of Vignettes
Limitations of Vignettes
Projective Techniques
Classification of Projective Techniques
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
Validity
Definitions
Approaches to Internal Validity
Measurement of Content Validity
Interpretation of Content Validity Coefficient
Reliability
Elements of Reliability
Measures for Assessing Stability
Steps of Computing Coefficient Correlation
Measures for Equivalence
Measures for Internal Consistency
Cultural Equivalence of an Instrument
PILOT STUDY/FEASIBILITY STUDY
Definitions
Objectives of Pilot Study
Purposes of Pilot Study
10:
Data Analysis and Interpretation
INTRODUCTION
STATISTICAL PROCEDURES
Descriptive Statistics
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT (SCALES OF MEASUREMENT)
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
MEASURES OF DISPERSION/VARIABILITY
DATA PROCESSING
Types of Data Processing
Data Preparation, Input, Verification and Cleaning
Data Editing
Data Preparation or Coding
Data Cleaning
DATA PRESENTATION
Tabulation
Construction of Discrete Frequency Distribution Table
Construction of Continuous Frequency Distribution Table
Graphical Presentation
Bar Graph
Histogram
Frequency Curve
Pictograms
Frequency Polygon
Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive)
Scatter or Dot Diagram
Line diagram
Charts
Maps
Drawings
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Types of Inferential Statistics
TESTING HYPOTHESIS
Meaning of the Results
Interpreting Hypothesized Results
Interpreting Nonsignificant Results
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Qualitative Data Analysis Approach
Element of Qualitative Data Analysis
Processes of Qualitative Analysis
Use of Computer Software Packages
Data Quality and Rigor in Qualitative Research
Data Analysis Procedure
Developing a Category Scheme
Memoing—Reflective Remarks
Concept Mapping
A General Analytic Overview
Qualitative Content Analysis
Strengths of Content Analysis
Limitations of Content Analysis
Semiotics
Ethnographic Analysis
Narrative Analysis
Grounded Theory Analysis
Glaser and Strauss Method (1967)
Strauss and Corbin Approach (1998)
Phenomenological Analysis
Colaizzi Method (1978)
Giorzi Method (1985)
Van Kaam (1966)
Utrecht School of Phenomenology
Heideggerian Hermeneutics School of Phenomenology
11:
Communication and Dissemination of Research Findings
INTRODUCTION
Purpose of Communication of Research Findings
COMMUNICATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
Steps for Communicating the Research
Methods of Communication
RESEARCH REPORT
Features of a Good Research Report
Writing a Research Report
Other Aspects of a Research Report
Writing Research Report—Step-by-Step
References and Bibliography
Examples of Vancouver Style References
Journal
Book
Conference Proceeding
Thesis and Dissertation
E-Thesis
E-Journals
Newspaper Article
APA Style of References
Book
Journal
Dissertation and Thesis
CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF RESEARCH (RESEARCH CRITIQUE)
Purpose of Research Critique
Approaches for Research Critique
General Guidelines for Critical Appraisal
Dimension of Research Critique
Scientific Criteria for Critical Appraisal
Introduction
Problem Statement
Literature Review
Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses
Methodology
Data Analysis
Results
Conclusion
References
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Purpose of Research Proposal
Golden rules for Proposal Development
Format of a Research Proposal
RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION MISCONDUCT
RESEARCH UTILIZATION (RU)
Definitions
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE (EBP)
Definitions
BARRIERS TO RESEARCH UTILIZATION
Barriers Related to Nurses
Barriers Related to Organization
Barriers Related to Research
Barriers Related to Communication
FACILITATING RESEARCH UTILIZATION
12:
Introduction to Statistics
INTRODUCTION
Meaning and Definition
CHARACTERISTICS OF STATISTICS
FUNCTIONS OF STATISTICS
COMMON STATISTICAL TERMS
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Nominal Measurement
Ordinal Measurement
Interval Measurement
Ratio Measurement
DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Descriptive Statistics
Inferential Statistics
METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION
Tabulation
Construction of a Good Table
Table Number
Title
Caption or Column Heading
Stub or Row Heading
Body
Requirements for a Good Table
Graphical Presentation
Purpose of Graphical Presentation
Form of Graphical Presentation
Requirements for a Good Diagram/Graph
Bar Graph
Pie or Sector Graph
Histogram
Frequency Curve
Pictograms
Frequency Polygon
Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive)
Scatter or Dot Diagram
Line Diagram
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Mean
Short Cut Method (by Assumed Mean Method)
Calculation of Mean for Grouped Data
Properties of Arithmetic Mean
Merits of Mean
Demerits of Mean
Median (Mdn)
Calculation of Median from Continuous Data
Merits of Median
Demerits of Median
Mode
Calculation of Mode
Calculation of Mode for Continuous Data
Merits of Mode
Demerits of Mode
MEASURE OF DISPERSION OR VARIABILITY
Characteristics of Good Measure of Dispersion
The Range
The Interquartile Range or Quartile Deviation
Computation of Quartile Deviation
Arrange the Score in Ascending Order
Calculation of QD for Grouped Data
The Mean Deviation
The Standard Deviation or SD
Calculation of Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation (Assumed Mean Method)
Steps of Calculating Standard Deviation
Combined Standard Deviation
Coefficient of Variation (CV)
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE
Characteristics of Normal Distribution Curve
Importance of Normal Probability Curve
Shape of Normal Curve
Skewness and Kurtosis
Skewness
Kurtosis
COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION(R)
Types of Correlation Coefficient
Uses of Correlation
Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Level of Significance
Type I and Type II Errors
Type I Error
Type II Error
PARAMETRIC AND NONPARAMETRIC TESTS
Parametric Tests
Nonparametric Test
Degree of Freedom (df)
TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE
Chi-Square Test (χ)2
Conditions for Chi-Square Application
Calculation of Chi-Square
Chi-Square Test for Homogeneity
Limitations of Chi-Square
T-TEST
Testing Difference Between Two Group Means
Assumptions for t-test
Independent Sample t-Test
Application of t-Test
To Test the Significance of the Mean of a Random Sample
Testing Difference between Means of Two Samples (Dependent or Paired Samples)
Inference of t-Test
Testing Difference Between Means of Two Sample (Independent Sample)
Degree of Freedom (df)
Z-TEST
Assumptions of Z-test
Deciding between t-and Z-test
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)
Assumptions of ANOVA
Steps of ANOVA Calculation
Calculation of Sum of Square
Prepare Variance Table
Inference
Statistical Packages and Analysis
SELECTION OF STATISTICAL PACKAGES
Statistical Packages
Appendices
Glossary
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
INDEX
TOC
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