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Mahajan's Methods in Biostatistics for Medical Students and Research Workers
Arun Bhadra Khanal
CHAPTER 1:
Introduction
Biostatistics
Application and Uses of Biostatistics as a Science
In physiology and anatomy
In pharmacology
In medicine
In community medicine and public health
Application and Uses of Biostatistics as Figures
Scope
Common Statistical Terms
Notations for a Population and Sample Values
CHAPTER 2:
Sources and Presentation of Data
STATISTICAL DATA
Qualitative (or Discrete) Data
Quantitative (or Continuous) Data
METHODS OF PRESENTATION
Tabulation
Frequency distribution table or frequency table
Rules for making a frequency distribution table
Frequency Distribution Diagrams
Presentation or Illustration of Quantitative Data
Histogram
Frequency Polygon
Frequency Curve
Line chart or Graph
Cumulative Frequency Diagram or ‘Ogive'
Scatter or XY Diagram
Presentation or Illustration of Qualitative Data
Bar Diagram
Simple bar diagram (Figs 2.11, 2.12A and B)
Multiple bar diagram (Fig. 2.13)
Proportional bar diagram (Fig. 2.14)
Pie or Sector Diagram
Pictogram or Picture Diagram
Map Diagram or Spot Map
CHAPTER 3:
Measures of Location—Averages and Percentiles
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY—AVERAGES
Mean
Median
Mode
Calculation of Mean
Ungrouped series
Grouped series
Calculation of Median
Ungrouped series
Grouped series
MEASURES OF LOCATION—PERCENTILES
Application and Use of Percentiles
CHAPTER 4:
Variability and its Measures
TYPES OF VARIABILITY
Biological Variability
Classification of biological variability
Real Variability
Experimental Variability
Observer error
Instrumental error
Sampling defects or errors of bias
MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
Range
Semi-interquartile Range (Q)
Mean Deviation
Standard Deviation (SD)
Uses of standard deviation
Calculation of standard deviation
Calculation of standard deviation(s) in ungrouped series
Calculation of standard deviation in grouped series
Coefficient of Variation
APPENDIX ON CHAPTERS 3 AND 4
Variance and Standard Deviation for Ungrouped Data
Variance and Standard Deviation for Grouped Data
Computer Analysis for Descriptive Statistics
CHAPTER 5:
Normal Distribution and Normal Curve
DEMONSTRATION OF A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
NORMAL CURVE
RELATIVE OR STANDARD NORMAL DEVIATE OR VARIATE (Z)
ASYMMETRICAL DISTRIBUTIONS
Further Notes on Normal Probability Distribution
The Standardized Normal Probability Density Function
Problems on Normal Probability Distribution
CHAPTER 6:
Sampling
SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
Precision
For quantitative data
For qualitative data
Unbiased Character
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Simple Random Sampling
Lottery method
Table of random number method
Systematic Sampling
Merits
Stratified Sampling
Merits
Multistage Sampling
Merits
Cluster Sampling
Identification of clusters of collection of data
Multiphase Sampling
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7:
Probability (Chance)
LAWS OF PROBABILITY
Addition Law of Probability
Multiplication Law of Probability
Binomial Law of Probability
Probability (chances) from Shape of Normal Distribution or Normal Curve
Probability of Calculated Values from Tables
FURTHER NOTES ON PROBABILITY
Basic Probability
Marginal Probability
Joint Probability
Conditional Probability
Special Terminologies and Probability Used in Biostatistics
Sample of n Subjects Cross-Classified According to Disease Status and Screening Test Result
The Law of Total Probability
Bayes' Theorem
BINOMIAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION
Binomial Formula
Binomial Problems
CHAPTER 8:
Sampling Variability and Significance
SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION
SIGNIFICANCE
Estimation of Population Parameter
Testing of Statistical Hypothesis
Type I and II Errors
TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE
Z-test
One-tailed and two-tailed Z-tests
CHAPTER 9:
Significance of Difference in Means
STANDARD ERROR OF MEAN (SE )
Calculation of Standard Error of Mean (s)
Applications and Uses of the SE of Mean in Large Samples
STANDARD ERROR OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO MEANS OF LARGE SAMPLES
Calculation of Standard Error of Difference
Application of SE of Differences
SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEANS OF SMALL SAMPLES BY STUDENT'S t-TEST
Application of t-test
Criteria for applying t-test
Unpaired t-test
Paired t-test
For testing the significance of difference
Variance ratio test
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Test
CHAPTER 10:
Significance of Difference in Proportions of Large Samples
STANDARD ERROR OF PROPORTION (SEP)
Calculation of SEP
Application and Uses of SEP
Standard Error of Difference Between Two proportions [SE(p1 — p2)]
Calculation of SE(p1 — p2)
CHAPTER 11:
The Chi-square Test
APPLICATION OF CHI-SQUARE
Test of Proportions
Test of Association
Test of Goodness of Fit
CALCULATION OF χ2 VALUE
Restrictions in Application of χ2 Test
Examples to demonstrate application of χ2 test
CHAPTER 12:
Correlation and Regression
MEASURES OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONTINUOUS VARIABLES
TYPES OF CORRELATION
Perfect Positive Correlation
Perfect Negative Correlation
Moderately Positive Correlation
Moderately Negative Correlation
Absolutely No Correlation
CALCULATION OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENT FROM UNGROUPED SERIES
Conclusion
CALCULATION OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENT FROM THE GROUPED SERIES
REGRESSION
CALCULATION OF REGRESSION COEFFICIENT (b)
Regression Line
The Standard Error of Estimate
SUMMARY
CHAPTER 13:
Designing and Methodology of An Experiment or A Study
Steps in methodology and designing
Definition of the Problem
Aims and Objectives
Review of Literature
Hypothesis
Plan of Action
Definition of population under study
Selection of sample
Specifying the nature of study
Ruling out the observer and instrument error
Recording of data
Work schedule
Presentation of Data
Unbiased Statistical Analysis
Conclusion
Computers
Summary
Presentation Briefs
Further Reading
CHAPTER 14:
Demography and Vital Statistics
COLLECTION OF DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
Population Census
Uses of a population census in health matters
Records of Vital Statistics
Sample registration system (SRS)
Survey of causes of death (rural)
MEDICAL CERTIFICATION OF THE CASE OF DEATH
Part I
Part II
Records of Health Departments
Records of Health Institutions
Reports of Special Surveys
Periodic Publications
A. Publications of WHO
B. Publications of the Registrar General, India
C. Publications of the Directorate General of Health Services, New Delhi
D. Publications of state health directors
Miscellaneous Including Other Health Agencies
COMPILATION AND PRESENTATION
Age Classification
CHAPTER 15:
Measures of Population and Vital Statistics
Measures of population
Midyear Population
A. Natural increase method
B. Arithmetical progression or AP method
C. Geometrical progression or GP method
Growth of Population (Natural Increase)
Population Density
Population Distribution by Age and Sex in India
Measures of vital statistics
Rate
i. Crude rate
ii. Specific rate
Measures of Fertility
i. Crude birth rate
ii. Fertility rate
iii. Reproduction rate
iv. Sex ratio at birth
v. Illegitimacy rates
Measures of Marital Status
Measures of Morbidity
i. Incidence rates
ii. Prevalence rates
Duration of illness
Measures of Mortality
i. Crude death rate
ii. Standardized death rates
iii. Specific death rates
iv. Proportional mortality indicator
v. Case fatality rate (CFR)
vi. Life table
Application of Rates and Ratios of Vital Indices
Monitoring of Family Planning Program
Monitoring of MCH Services
Monitoring of Illness in the Community
Comprehensive indicators that measure health
Specific indicators that measure health
CHAPTER 16:
Life Table
USES AND APPLICATION
CONSTRUCTION OF A LIFE TABLE
MODIFIED LIFE TABLE
CHAPTER 17:
Exercises
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
CHAPTER 18:
Computers in Medicine
APPLICATION IN METHODS IN BIOSTATISTICS
APPLICATION IN COMMUNITY OR PUBLIC HEALTH CARE AND MANAGEMENT
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS IN HOSPITAL ESTABLISHMENTS, NURSING HOMES AND CLINICS OF ACADEMIC GENERAL PRACTITIONERS
Diagnosis
COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH
CHAPTER 19:
Computer Application in Biostatistical Analysis: An SPSS Manual
STARTING SPSS
TO OPEN DATA FILES
TO OBTAIN FREQUENCY TABLES
To Save Modified Data Files
Save as Data
Solutions to Exercises (Chapter 17) with SPSS
Recode into different variables
To Recode Values of a Variable into a New Variable
To Specify Value Labels
Frequencies
To Obtain Descriptive Statistics
Frequencies
To Obtain a One-Sample T Test
T Test
Interpretation of the Result
Confidence Interval Estimation for Mean
Explore
Independent-Samples T Test
To Obtain an Independent-Samples T Test
T Test
Interpretation of the Result
Paired-Samples T Test
To Obtain a Paired-Samples T Test
T Test
Interpretation of the result
To Obtain a Chi-square (χ2) Test of Independence
Crosstabs
Interpretation of the result
Obtaining Simple Scatter Diagram
Bivariate Correlations
To Obtain Bivariate Correlations
Correlations
Linear Regression
Linear Regression Statistics
To Obtain a Linear Regression Analysis
Regression
Analysis and Interpretation of the Regression Result/Output
Appendices
Appendix I
Appendix II
Appendix III
Appendix IV
Appendix V
Appendix VI
Appendix VII
Bibliography
INDEX
TOC
Index
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