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Textbook of Biochemistry for Medical Students
DM Vasudevan, Sreekumari S, Kannan Vaidyanathan
CHAPTER 1:
Biochemical Perspective to Medicine
BIOMOLECULES
STUDY OF METABOLIC PROCESSES
STABILIZING FORCES IN MOLECULES
WATER: THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS
DONNAN MEMBRANE EQUILIBRIUM
CHAPTER 2:
Subcellular Organelles and Cell Membranes
SUBCELLULAR ORGANELLES
NUCLEUS
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
GOLGI APPARATUS
LYSOSOMES
PEROXISOMES
MITOCHONDRIA
PLASMA MEMBRANE
SPECIALISED MEMBRANE STRUCTURES
TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
1-A. Simple Diffusion
1-B. Facilitated Diffusion
Aquaporins
1-C. Ion Channels
Ligand Gated Channels
Voltage Gated Channels
Ionophores
2. Active Transport
2-A. Sodium Pump
2-B. Calcium Pump
Uniport, Symport and Antiport
Secretory Vesicles and Exocytosis
Endocytosis
CHAPTER 3:
Amino Acids: Structure and Properties
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
1. Based on Structure
1-A. Aliphatic amino acids
1-B. Aromatic amino acids:
1-C. Heterocyclic amino acids:
1-D. Imino acid:
1-E. Derived amino acids:
Special Groups in Amino Acids
2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SIDE CHAIN
3. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON METABOLISM
4. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS
GENERAL REACTIONS OF AMINO ACIDS
A. Due to Carboxyl Group
B. Reactions Due to Amino Group
C. Reactions Due to Side Chains
Amino Acid Derivatives of Importance
PEPTIDE BOND FORMATION
Color Reactions of Amino Acids and Proteins
CHAPTER 4:
Proteins: Structure and Function
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
(Organisation of Proteins)
1. Primary Structure
1-A. Sequence of amino acids in proteins
1-B. Characteristics of a Peptide Bond
1-C. Numbering of Amino Acids in Proteins
1-D. Branched and Circular Proteins
1-E. Primary Structure of Insulin
1-F. Pro-insulin
1-G. Primary Structure Determines Biological Activity
2. Secondary Structure of Proteins
2-A. Alpha helix
2-B. Beta-pleated sheet
2-C. Collagen helix
3. Tertiary Structure
4. Quaternary Structure
Structure-function Relationship
STUDY OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS
PRECIPITATION REACTIONS OF PROTEINS
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
A. Classification based on functions
B. Classification based on Composition and Solubility
B-1. Simple Proteins
B-3. Derived Proteins
C. Classification based on the Shape
C-1. Globular proteins
C-2. Fibrous proteins
D. Classification based on Nutritional Value
D-1. Nutritionally rich proteins
D-2. Incomplete proteins
D-3. Poor proteins
Biologically Important Peptides
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION
Proteomics
CHAPTER 5:
Enzymology: General Concepts and Enzyme Kinetics
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
CO-ENZYMES
First Group of Co-enzymes
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD+)
Second Group of Co-enzymes
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Metallo-enzymes
Co-factors
MODE OF ACTION OF ENZYMES
MICHAELIS–MENTEN THEORY
FISCHER'S TEMPLATE THEORY
KOSHLAND'S INDUCED FIT THEORY
ACTIVE SITE OR ACTIVE CENTER OF ENZYME
THERMODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS
ENZYME KINETICS
FACTORS INFLUENCING ENZYME ACTIVITY
1. Enzyme Concentration
2. Effect of Substrate Concentration
3. Effect of Concentration of Products
4. Effect of Temperature
5. Effect of pH
6. Enzyme Activation
7. Enzyme Inhibition
7-A. Competitive Inhibition
7-B. Non-competitive Inhibition (Irreversible)
7-C. Uncompetitive Inhibition
7-D. Suicide Inhibition
7-E. Allosteric Regulation
7-F. Key enzymes
7-G. Feedback Inhibition
8-A. Induction
9. Covalent Modification
SPECIFICITY OF ENZYMES
Ribozymes
Enzyme Assays and Units
Body Metabolism is controlled by enzymes
Drug Metabolism
Enzyme Engineering
Drug Designing
Processive enzymes
Multi enzyme complexes
Sequential reactions or single displacement reactions
Ping Pong reactions or double displacement reactions
Single Molecule Enzymology
ISO-ENZYMES
Related topics
CHAPTER 6:
Chemistry of Carbohydrates
NOMENCLATURE
STEREOISOMERS
Reference Carbon Atom of Sugars
D and L isomerism of glucose
Optical Activity
1. Diastereo-isomers of Glucose
2. Epimerism of Aldoses
3. Anomerism of Sugars
Three Representations of Glucose Structure
Fructose is a Ketohexose
REACTIONS OF MONOSACCHARIDES
Amino Sugars
Deoxy Sugars
Pentoses
DISACCHARIDES
Sucrose
Lactose
Maltose
Isomaltose
POLYSACCHARIDES
1. Starch
A. Structure of starch
B. Hydrolysis of Starch
C. Action of Amylases on Starch
2. Glycogen
3. Cellulose
4. Inulin
5. Dextrans
6. Chitin
HETEROGLYCANS
Agar
MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES
GLYCOPROTEINS AND MUCOPROTEINS
CHAPTER 7:
Chemistry of Lipids
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
FATTY ACIDS
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
Trans Fatty Acids (TFA)
Properties of Fatty Acids
1. Hydrogenation
2. Halogenation
3. Melting point
4. Salt formation
5. Ester formation
6. Oxidation of Fatty Acids
NEUTRAL FATS
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
1. Phosphatidyl choline or Lecithin
Action of Phospholipases
Lung Surfactants
Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS)
2. Phosphatidyl ethanolamine or Cephalin
3. Phosphatidyl inositol
4. Plasmalogens
5. Phosphatidyl glycerol
6. Sphingolipids
7. Phosphosphingosides
Sphingomyelins
Non-phosphorylated Lipids
Glycosphingolipids (Glycolipids)
Globosides (Ceramide oligosaccharides)
Gangliosides
Sulfolipids or Sulfatides
Lipidomics
Related topics
CHAPTER 8:
Overview of Metabolism
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF METABOLISM
Studies on Metabolism
METABOLISM
Types of Metabolic Pathways
Stages or Phases of Metabolism
METABOLIC PROFILE OF ORGANS
1. Brain
2. Skeletal Muscle
3. Adipose Tissue
4. Liver
5. Cardiac Muscle
Effect of Exercise on Metabolic Profile
Metabolic Adaptations During Starvation
First Stage: Glycogenolysis
Second Stage: Gluconeogenesis
Third Stage: Lipolysis
Fourth Stage: Acidosis
CHAPTER 9:
Major Metabolic Pathways of Glucose
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Absorption of Glucose
1. Co-transport from Lumen to Intestinal Cell
2. Another Uniport System Releases Glucose into Blood
3. Glucose Transporter 4
Absorption of Other Monosaccharides
GLUCOSE METABOLISM
GLYCOLYSIS (EMBDEN-MEYERHOF PATHWAY)
Steps of Glycolytic Pathway
Step 1 of Glycolysis
Step 2 of Glycolysis
Step 3 of Glycolysis
Step 4 of Glycolysis
Step 4-A of Glycolysis
Step 5 of Glycolysis
Step 6 of Glycolysis
Step 7 of Glycolysis
Step 8 of Glycolysis
Step 9 of Glycolysis
Step 10 of Glycolysis
Significance of lactate production Steps 5 and 10 are Coupled
Energy Yield from Glycolysis
Regulation of Glycolysis
Factors regulating glycolysis
CORI'S CYCLE OR LACTIC ACID CYCLE
Pasteur Effect
Warburg Hypothesis
Rapaport Leubering Cycle (BPG Shunt)
Significance of BPG
METABOLIC FATE OF PYRUVATE
GLUCONEOGENESIS
1. Definition
2. Site
3. Key gluconeogenic enzymes
1. Pyruvate carboxylase reaction
2. Phosphoenol pyruvate carboxy kinase
Partial Reversal of Glycolysis
3. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
4. Glucose-6-phosphatase Reaction
Significance of gluconeogenesis
Substrates for Gluconeogenesis
1. Lactate
2. Glucogenic amino acids
3. Glycerol
4. Propionyl CoA
Regulation of Gluconeogenesis
1. Pyruvate Carboxylase
2. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
3. ATP
4. Hormonal Regulation of Gluconeogenesis
GN ratio or DN ratio
GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
DEGRADATION OF GLYCOGEN (GLYCOGENOLYSIS)
Energetics
GLYCOGEN SYNTHESIS (GLYCOGENESIS)
Regulation of Glycogen Metabolism
2. Generation of Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
2-A. Protein Kinase Activation
2-B. Phosphorylase Kinase Activation
3. Glycogen Phosphorylase in Liver and Muscle
4. Glycogen Synthase
5. Summary of Regulation
GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASES
CHAPTER 10:
Minor Metabolic Pathways of Carbohydrates
HEXOSE MONOPHOSPHATE (HMP) SHUNT PATHWAY
A. Oxidative Phase
Step 1 of HMP Pathway
Step 2 of HMP Pathway
Step 3, NADPH is Again Generated
B. Non-Oxidative Phase
Step 4: Isomerization
Step 5: Transketolase Reaction
Step 6: Transaldolase Reaction
Step 7: Second Transketolase Reaction
Step 8: Regeneration of Glucose-6-Phosphate
Regulation of HMP Shunt Pathway
Summary of Shunt Pathway
Physiological Significance of the Pathway
1. Pathway is Operating in following Organs:
2. Generation of Reducing Equivalents
3. Free Radical Scavenging
4. Erythrocyte Membrane Integrity
5. Prevention of Met-hemoglobinemia
6. Detoxification of Drugs
7. Lens of Eye
8. Macrophage Bactericidal Activity
9. Availability of Ribose
10. What about ATP?
Clinical Significance of Shunt Pathway
1. GPD Deficiency
2. Met-hemoglobinemia
3. Thiamine Deficiency
Glucuronic Acid Pathway of Glucose Metabolism
Importance of the glucuronic acid pathway
Effect of Drugs
Vitamin C in Lower Animals
Essential Pentosuria
POLYOL PATHWAY OF GLUCOSE
FRUCTOSE METABOLISM
GALACTOSE METABOLISM
METABOLISM OF ALCOHOL
Biochemical Alterations in Alcoholism
Chronic Alcoholism
A. Alcoholism and liver
B. Alcoholism and Nervous System
E. Laboratory findings in chronic alcoholism
METABOLISM OF AMINO SUGARS
Glycoproteins
Selectins, Integrins and ICAMs
Proteoglycans
Mucopolysaccharidoses
CHAPTER 11:
Metabolism of Fatty Acids
DIGESTION OF LIPIDS
ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS
Absorption of Long Chain Fatty Acids
1. Mixed micelle formation
2. Enterohepatic Circulation of Bile Salts
3. Re-esterification Inside the Mucosal Cell
3. Chylomicrons
4. SCFA Absorption is Different
5. Abnormalities in Absorption of Lipids
6. Fate of Chylomicrons
BETA OXIDATION OF FATTY ACIDS
Preparative steps for beta oxidation
Preparative step 1: Activation of Fatty Acids
Preparative step 2: Role of Carnitine
Preparative Step 3: Carnitine Acyl Transferase
Preparative Step 4: Translocase
Clinical Applications
Beta oxidation steps
Step 1: FAD Linked Dehydrogenase
Step 2: Hydration
Step 3: NAD+ Dependent Dehydrogenase
Step 4: Cleavage
Further Cycles
Energetics of beta oxidation (ATP Yield)
Regulation of Beta Oxidation
Defects in Beta Oxidation
Organic Acidurias
OXIDATION OF ODD CHAIN FATTY ACIDS
Alpha Oxidation
Refsum's disease
Infantile Refsum's disease
Omega Oxidation
DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS
Fatty Acid Synthase (FAS) Complex
Advantages of Multi-enzyme complex
1st domain or condensing unit
2nd domain or reduction unit
3rd domain or releasing unit
Step 1: Carboxylation of Acetyl CoA
Step 2: Three C and Two C Units are Added
Step 3: Condensation
Step 4: Reduction
Step 5: Dehydration
Step 6: Second Reduction
Cycling of Reactions
Step 7: Palmitic acid is released
Summary of De novo Synthesis
Co-enzymes of Fatty Acid Synthesis
1. Pentose phosphate pathway
2. Malic enzyme
Regulation of Fatty Acid Synthesis
1. Availability of substrates
2. Acetyl CoA Carboxylase
3. Insulin Favors Lipogenesis
4. Glucagon inhibits Lipogenesis
Inherited disorders
SYNTHESIS OF TRIGLYCERIDES (TAG)
METABOLISM OF ADIPOSE TISSUE
Adipokines (Adipose Tissue Derived Hormones)
Liver-Adipose Tissue Axis
FATTY LIVER AND LIPOTROPIC FACTORS
Lipotropic Factors
METABOLISM OF KETONE BODIES
A. Ketogenesis
Step 1. Condensation
Step 2. Production of HMG CoA
Step 3. Lysis
Step 4. Reduction
Step 5. Spontaneous decarboxylation
B. Ketolysis
KETOSIS
Causes for ketosis
Explanation for Ketogenesis
Level 1: Lipolysis
Level 2: Entry of Fatty Acid to Mitochondria
Level 3: Oxidation of Acetyl CoA
Salient features of Ketosis
Diagnosis of Ketosis
Differential Diagnosis of Ketosis
Management of Ketoacidosis
CHAPTER 12:
Cholesterol and Lipoproteins
BIOSYNTHESIS OF CHOLESTEROL
PLASMA LIPIDS
Classification of Lipoproteins
Apo-lipoproteins
1. CHYLOMICRONS
2. VERY LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS
3. LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (LDL)
Lipoprotein (a)
4. HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN (HDL)
5. FREE FATTY ACID (FFA)
FORMATION OF BILE ACIDS
Cholesterol and Cardiac Diseases
CHAPTER 13:
MCFA, PUFA, Prostaglandins and Compound Lipids
MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS (MUFA)
POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS (PUFA)
EICOSANOIDS
PROSTAGLANDINS (PGs)
Biological Actions and Clinical Applications
1. Effects on CVS
2. Effects on Ovary and Uterus
3. Effects on Respiratory Tract
4. Effects on Immunity and Inflammation
5. Effects on Gastrointestinal Tract
6. Metabolic Effects
Leukotrienes (LTs)
Lipoxins
SYNTHESIS OF COMPOUND LIPIDS
Gaucher's disease
Synthesis of Sulfatides
Tay-Sachs disease
Lipid Storage Diseases (Sphingolipidoses)
Multiple Sclerosis
CHAPTER 14:
General Amino Acid Metabolism (Urea Cycle, One Carbon Metabolism)
DIGESTION OF PROTEINS
A. Gastric Digestion of Proteins
1. Rennin
2. Pepsin
B. Pancreatic Digestion of Proteins
3. Trypsin
4. Chymotrypsin
5. Carboxypeptidases
C. Intestinal Digestion of Proteins
6. Leucine aminopeptidase
7. Proline amino peptidase
8. Dipeptidases and tripeptidases
ABSORPTION OF AMINO ACIDS
Intracellular Protein Degradation
Cathepsins
Ubiquitin
Proteasomes
Inter-organ Transport of Amino Acids
In fasting state
In the fed state
GENERAL METABOLISM OF AMINO ACIDS
FORMATION OF AMMONIA
A. Transamination
Biological Significance of Transamination
1. First step of catabolism
2. Synthesis of nonessential amino acids
3. Interconversion of amino acids
Exceptions
Clinical Significance of Transamination
B. Trans-deamination
Oxidative Deamination of Glutamate
Minor Pathways of Deamination
Nonoxidative Deaminations
DISPOSAL/DETOXIFICATION OF AMMONIA
UREA CYCLE
Regulation of the Urea Cycle
1. Coarse Regulation
2. Fine Regulation
3. Compartmentalization
Disorders of Urea Cycle
Hepatic Coma (Acquired Hyperammonemia)
Urea Level in Blood
ONE-CARBON METABOLISM
CHAPTER 15:
Simple Hydroxy and Sulfur Containing Amino Acids (Glycine, Serine, Methionine, Cysteine)
GLYCINE (GLY) (G)
Utilization of Glycine
1. Glycine cleavage system
2. Glucogenic Pathway
3. Special Metabolic Functions of Glycine
4. Creatine and Creatine Phosphate
Clinical applications
5. Synthesis of Heme
6. Synthesis of Purines
7. Synthesis of Glutathione
8. Glycine as a Conjugating Agent
9. Glycine as a Neurotransmitter
10. Glycine as a Constituent of Protein
Metabolic Errors in Relation to Glycine
1. Nonketotic hyperglycinemia
2. Primary Hyperoxaluria
SERINE (SER) (S)
Catabolism of Serine
Metabolic Functions of Serine
7. Choline Synthesis
9. Serine as a Component of Protein
Selenocysteine (SeCys) (21st amino acid)
ALANINE (Ala) (A)
Methionine (Met) (M)
Methionine in Transmethylation Reactions
CYSTEINE (CYS)(C)
Metabolic Functions of Cysteine
1. Formation of Glutathione
2. Amino Acid Transport
3. Co-enzyme Role
4. RBC Membrane Integrity
5. Met-hemoglobin
6. Conjugation for Detoxification
7. Activation of Enzymes
8. Formation of Taurine
9. Keeping the correct structure of proteins
Metabolism of Sulfur
Cystinuria
Hypermethioninemias
HOMOCYSTINURIAS
CHAPTER 16:
Acidic, Basic and Branched Chain Amino Acids (Glutamic Acid, Aspartic Acid, Lysine, Arginine, Nitric Oxide, Histidine, Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine)
GLUTAMIC ACID (GLU) (E)
Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA)
GLUTAMINE (Gln) (Q)
ASPARTIC ACID (ASP) (D)
Asparagine (Asn) (N)
Dicarboxylic Amino Aciduria
BASIC AMINO ACIDS
Lysine (lys) (K)
ARGININE (ARG) (R)
NITRIC OXIDE (NO)
POLYAMINES
Biogenic Amines
BRANCHED CHAIN AMINO ACIDS (BCA)
Isovaleric Aciduria
HISTIDINE (HIS) (H)
Histamine
Folic Acid Deficiency
FIGLU excretion test
CHAPTER 17:
Aromatic Amino Acids and Amino Acidurias: (Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan, Proline)
PHENYLALANINE (Phe) (F)
TYROSINE (Tyr) (T)
Catabolism of Tyrosine (and Phenylalanine)
Step 2: Transamination
Step 3: Production of homogentisic acid
Step 4: Cleavage of aromatic ring
Step 5: Isomerization
Step 6: Hydrolysis
Important Specialized Products from Tyrosine
1. Synthesis of melanin
2. Synthesis of Catecholamines
Actions of Epinephrine
2-A. Degradation of Adrenaline
PHENYL KETONURIA (PKU)
ALKAPTONURIA
ALBINISM
HYPERTYROSINEMIAS
TRYPTOPHAN (TRP) (W)
Serotonin
Functions of Serotonin
Catabolism of Serotonin
Carcinoid Tumors
Melatonin
Proline (Pro) (P) and Hydroxyproline
Fate of Carbon skeletons of Amino Acids
AMINO ACIDURIAS
CHAPTER 18:
Citric Acid Cycle
SIGNIFICANCE
Regulation of the Citric Acid Cycle
1. Citrate and citrate synthase
2. Availability and cellular need of ATP
3. Isocitrate dehydrogenase
4. Alpha ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
Inhibitors of TCA Cycle
Metabolic Defects Related to Krebs Cycle
CHAPTER 19:
Biological Oxidation and Electron Transport Chain
BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION
Electron Transport Chain
Energetics of Oxidative Phosphorylation
ENZYMES AND COENZYMES
HIGH ENERGY COMPOUNDS
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Creatine phosphate
Structure of Mitochondrion
ORGANIZATION OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
Current concept, Energetics of ATP synthesis
Sites of ATP Synthesis
CHEMI-OSMOTIC THEORY
PROTON PUMP AND ATP SYNTHESIS
ATP SYNTHASE (COMPLEX V)
Regulation of ATP Synthesis
INHIBITORS OF ATP SYNTHESIS
Diseases Associated with Mitochondria
CHAPTER 20:
Free Radicals and Anti-Oxidants
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Lipid Peroxidation
1. Initiation Phase
2. Propagation Phase
3. Termination Phase
Role of Anti-Oxidants
CHAPTER 21:
Heme Synthesis and Breakdown
FUNCTION OF HEME
BIOSYNTHESIS OF HEME
Disorders of Heme Synthesis
Acute Intermittent Porphyria (AIP)
CATABOLISM OF HEME
Plasma Bilirubin
van den Bergh Test for Bilirubin
Tests for Bile Pigments
HYPERBILIRUBINEMIAS
1. Congenital Hyperbilirubinemias
1-A. Crigler-Najjar Syndrome
1-C. Dubin-Johnson Syndrome
2. Acquired Hyperbilirubinemias
2-A. Physiological Jaundice
2-B. Breast milk jaundice
3. Hemolytic Jaundice
3-A. Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
3-B. Hemolytic Diseases of Adults
4. Hepatocellular Jaundice
5. Obstructive Jaundice
CHAPTER 22:
Hemoglobin (Structure, Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport, Abnormal Hemoglobins)
STRUCTURE Of HEMOGLOBIN
TRANSPORT OF oxygen BY HEMOGLOBIN
Oxygen Dissociation Curve (ODC)
1. Heme-heme interaction and Cooperativity
2. Effect of pH and pCO2
3. The Bohr Effect
4. The Chloride Shift
5. Effect of Temperature
6. Effect of 2,3-BPG
Adaptation to High Altitude
Laboratory Diagnosis
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
Fetal Hemoglobin (HbF)
Hemoglobin A2
HEMOGLOBIN DERIVATIVES
1. Carboxy-Hemoglobin (Carbon Monoxy Hb) (CO-Hb)
2-A. Methemoglobin (Met-Hb)
2-B. Methemoglobinemias
2-C. Congenital Methemoglobinemia
2-D. Acquired or Toxic Methemoglobinemia
2-E. Laboratory analysis
2-F. Hemin Crystals
3. Sulf-hemoglobinemia
4. Nitric Oxide
5. Glycated hemoglobin
HEMOGLOBIN (GLOBIN CHAIN) VARIANTS
Hemoglobinopathies
1. Sickle syndromes
4. Structural variations leading to thalassemia
5. Non-symptomatic hemoglobin variants
1. Hemoglobin S (HbS)
(Sickle Cell Hemoglobin)
1-A. Sickle Cell Disease
1-B. Sickle Cell Trait
1-C. Electrophoresis
1-D. Sickling Test
1-E. Management of Sickle Cell Disease
2. Hemoglobin E
3. Hemoglobin C
4. Hemoglobin D
5. M-Hemoglobins (Hb M)
6. Inheritance of Hemoglobin Variants
THALASSEMIAS
2. Alpha thalassemias
3. Thalassemia Syndromes
4. Hemoglobin Lepore
MYOGLOBIN (Mb)
ANEMIAS
CHAPTER 23:
Clinical Enzymology and Biomarkers
CLINICAL ENZYMOLOGY
CREATINE KINASE (CK)
CARDIAC TROPONINS (CTI/CTT)
LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE (LDH) (LD)
ASPARTATE AMINO TRANSFERASE (AST)
Brain Natriuretic Peptide (BNP)
Enzyme Profiles in Liver Diseases
ALANINE AMINO TRANSFERASE (ALT)
ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE (ALP)
PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN (PSA)
ACID PHOSPHATASE (ACP)
Cholinesterase (ChE)
Glucose-6-phosphate Dehydrogenase
AMYLASE
LIPASE
ENOLASE
Aldolase (ALD)
Ceruloplasmin
Enzymes as Therapeutic Agents
Enzymes Used for Diagnosis
Immobilized Enzymes
Related topics
CHAPTER 24:
Regulation of Blood Glucose, Insulin and Diabetes Mellitus
REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE
Post-prandial Regulation
Regulation in Fasting State
Determination of Glucose in Body Fluids
Commonly employed terms regarding glucose
Conducting the glucose tolerance test
Normal Values and interpretations
Classical Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)
Causes for Abnormal GTT Curve
1. Impaired Glucose Tolerance (IGT)
2. Impaired Fasting Glycemia (IFG)
3. Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)
4. Alimentary Glucosuria
5. Renal Glucosuria
REDUCING SUBSTANCES IN URINE
INSULIN
Factors increasing insulin secretion
Mechanisms of Action of Insulin
Physiological Actions of Insulin (Metabolic Effects of Insulin)
1. Uptake of Glucose by Tissues
2. Utilization of Glucose
3. Hypoglycemic Effect
4. Lipogenesis
5. Anti-lipolytic Effect
6. Anti-ketogenic Effect
7. Other General Effects
HYPERGLYCEMIC HORMONES
GLUCAGON
Anti-insulin Hormones
Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Metabolic Syndrome (MetS)
Management of the Metabolic Syndrome
Metabolic Derangements in Diabetes
1. Derangements in Carbohydrate Metabolism
2. Derangements in Lipid Metabolism
3. Derangement in Protein Metabolism
Clinical Presentations in Diabetes Mellitus
Cardinal Symptoms
Acute Metabolic Complications
Diabetic Keto Acidosis
Diagnosis of Ketosis
Differential Diagnosis of Ketosis
Causes for Ketosis
Consequences of Ketosis
Management of Ketosis
Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Coma
Lactic Acidosis
Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
Laboratory Investigations in Diabetes
1. Plasma glucose level
2. Complete lipid profile
3. Kidney function tests
4. Micro-albuminuria and frank albuminuria
5. Glycated Hemoglobin
Interpretation of Glyco-Hb Values
Management of Diabetes Mellitus
Hypoglycemia
CHAPTER 25:
Cardiovascular Diseases and Hyperlipidemias
ATHEROSCLEROSIS
PLASMA LIPID PROFILE
RISK FACTORS FOR ATHEROSCLEROSIS
PREVENTION OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS
HYPOLIPOPROTEINEMIAS
HYPERLIPIDEMIAS
CHAPTER 26:
Liver and Gastric Function Tests
FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
Clinical Manifestations of Liver Dysfunction
Jaundice
Portal Hypertension
Ascites
I. Markers of Hepatic dysfunction
1. Measurement of Bilirubin
2. Urinary Bilirubin
3. Urinary Urobilinogen
4. Urine Bile Salts
5. Aminopyrine Excretion Test
Causes of Jaundice
II. Tests based on Synthetic Function of Liver
1. Serum albumin level
III. Tests based on Serum Enzymes (Liver Enzyme Panel)
1. Enzymes indicating hepatocellular damage
IV. Markers of Obstructive Liver Disease
1. Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP)
2. Gamma Glutamyl Transferase (GGT)
V. Tests on the Metabolic Capacity of Liver
VI. Selection of Tests
GASTRIC FUNCTION
Assessment of Gastric Function
PANCREATIC FUNCTION TESTS
STUDIES ON MALABSORPTION
CHAPTER 27:
Kidney Function Tests
RENAL FUNCTION TESTS
Reabsorption of Solutes in Tubules
Reabsorption of Water
ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE
A. Physical Characteristics of Urine
B. Chemical Characteristics of Urine
1. Reaction to Litmus
2. Proteins
3. Blood
4. Reducing Sugars (Glycosuria)
5. Ketone Bodies
6. Bile Salts
7. Bile Pigments
8. Urobilinogen
Nonprotein Nitrogen (NPN)
MARKERS OF GFR
Clearance Tests
Definition
Creatinine Clearance Test
1. Importance of Creatinine Clearance
2. Reference Values of Creatinine
3. Procedure for Creatinine Clearance Test
4. Interpretation of Creatinine Clearance
Cystatin C as a filtration marker
Chronic kidney disease (CKD)
Urea Clearance Test
1. Importance of Urea Clearance
2. Procedure
3. Maximum Urea Clearance
4. Standard Urea Clearance
5. Interpretation of Urea Clearance Value
Blood Urea Level
1. Normal Serum Urea Level
2. Interpretation of Blood Urea Value
3. Renal Diseases
4. Decreased Blood Urea
Azotemia
Uremic syndrome
Inulin clearance
Diodrast clearance
MARKERS OF GLOMERULAR PERMEABILITY
Proteinuria
1. Glomerular proteinuria
2. Micro-albuminuria
3. Overflow Proteinuria
TESTS FORTUBULAR FUNCTION
Immunological Tests in Renal Diseases
CHAPTER 28:
Plasma Proteins
ELECTROPHORESIS
ALBUMIN
Functions of Albumin
1. Colloid osmotic pressure of plasma
2. Transport Function
3. Buffering action
4. Nutritional function
Clinical Applications
1. Blood brain barrier
2. Drug interactions
3. Protein-bound calcium
4. Therapeutic use
5. Edema
6. Normal value
7. Hypo-albuminemia
Albumin-Globulin Ratio
Hypoproteinemia
Hyper-gamma-globulinemias
1. Low albumin level
2. Chronic infections
3. Multiple myeloma
TRANSPORT PROTEINS
Polymorphism
ACUTE PHASE PROTEINS
Negative Acute Phase Proteins
CLOTTING FACTORS
Fibrinolysis
Clinical significance
ABNORMALITIES IN COAGULATION
CHAPTER 29:
Acid-Base Balance and pH
ACIDS AND BASES
BUFFERS
ACID-BASE BALANCE
1. BUFFERS OF THE BODY FLUIDS
2. RESPIRATORY REGULATION OF pH
3. RENAL REGULATION OF pH
CELLULAR BUFFERS
DISTURBANCES IN ACID-BASE BALANCE
Classification of Acid-Base Disturbances
1. Acidosis (fall in pH)
2. Alkalosis (rise in pH)
3. Compensatory responses
4. Mixed Responses
Chemical Pathology Of Acid-Base Disturbances Metabolic Acidosis
1. Anion Gap
2-A. High Anion Gap Metabolic Acidosis (HAGMA)
2-B. Normal Anion Gap Metabolic Acidosis (NAGMA)
3. Decreased Anion Gap is Seen in
4. Osmolal gap
5. Compensated Metabolic Acidosis
Clinical Features of Metabolic Acidosis
Treatment of Metabolic Acidosis
Metabolic Alkalosis
Subclassification of metabolic alkalosis
Clinical Features of Metabolic Alkalosis
Respiratory Acidosis
Respiratory Alkalosis
Normal serum electrolyte values
Related Topics
CHAPTER 30:
Electrolyte and Water Balance
SODIUM (Na+)
POTASSIUM (K+)
CHLORIDE (Cl−)
CHAPTER 31:
Body Fluids (Milk, CSF, Amniotic Fluid)
MILK
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)
AMNIOTIC FLUID
CHAPTER 32:
Clinical Laboratory: Screening of Metabolic Diseases; Quality Control
PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS
NEWBORN SCREENING
LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS TO DIAGNOSE METABOLIC DISORDERS
PREANALYTICAL VARIABLES
Specimen Collection
QUALITY CONTROL (QC)
CHAPTER 33:
Fat Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, K)
VITAMIN A
Biochemical Role of Vitamin A
1. Wald's Visual Cycle
A. Generation of Nerve Impulse
B. Regeneration of 11-cis-retinal
2. Dark Adaptation Mechanism
3. Rods are for Vision in Dim Light
4. Cones are for Color Vision
5. Other Biochemical Functions of Vitamin A
Deficiency manifestations of Vitamin A
1. Night Blindness or Nyctalopia
2. Xerophthalmia
3. Bitot's Spots
4. Keratomalacia
5. Preventable Blindness
6. Skin and Mucous Membrane Lesions
Causes for Vitamin A Deficiency
Daily Requirement of Vitamin A
Dietary Sources of Vitamin A
Hypervitaminosis A or Toxicity
VITAMIN D (CHOLECALCIFEROL)
Biochemical Effects of Vitamin D
A. Vitamin D and Absorption of Calcium
B. Effect of Vitamin D in Bone
C. Effect of Vitamin D in Renal Tubules
Deficiency of Vitamin D
A. Causes for Vitamin D Deficiency
B. Clinical Features of Rickets
C. Clinical Features of Osteomalacia
D. Different Types of Rickets
Requirement of Vitamin D
Sources of Vitamin D
Hypervitaminosis D
VITAMIN E
Biochemical Role of Vitamin E
Inter-relationship with Selenium
Deficiency Manifestations of Vitamin E
Recommended Daily Allowance
Sources of Vitamin E
7. Hypervitaminosis E
VITAMIN K
Biochemical Role of Vitamin K
Vitamin K Dependent Carboxylase
Causes for Deficiency of Vitamin K
Clinical Manifestations of Deficiency
Daily Requirement of Vitamin K
Sources of Vitamin K
CHAPTER 34:
Water Soluble Vitamins (Thiamine, Riboflavin, Niacin, Pyridoxine, Pantothenic acid, Biotin, Folic acid, Vitamin B12 and Ascorbic acid)
THIAMINE (VITAMIN B1)
Physiological Role of Thiamine
Deficiency Manifestations of Thiamine
Biochemical Parameters
Recommended Daily Allowance of Thiamine
RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)
Co-enzyme Activity of Riboflavin
A. FAD Accepts Hydrogen
B. FMN-dependent Enzymes
C. FAD-dependent Enzymes
Riboflavin Deficiency
Dietary Sources of Riboflavin
Daily Requirement
NIACIN
Co-enzyme Forms of Niacin
One Hydrogen Atom and One Electron
NAD+ Dependent Enzymes
NADPH Dependent Reactions
Niacin Deficiency
A. Pellagra
B. Niacin is Synthesized from Tryptophan
C. Causes for Niacin Deficiency
Dietary Sources of Niacin
Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA)
Therapeutic Use of Niacin
Toxicity of Niacin
VITAMIN B6
Functions of Pyridoxal Phosphate
1. Transamination
2. Decarboxylation
3. Sulfur Containing Amino Acids
4. Heme Synthesis
5. Production of Niacin
6. Glycogenolysis
Deficiency Manifestations of Pyridoxine
1. Neurological Manifestations
2. Dermatological Manifestations
3. Hematological Manifestations
Effect of Drugs on Vitamin B6
Dietary Sources of Vitamin B6
Requirement of B6
Toxicity of Vitamin B6
PANTOTHENIC ACID
BIOTIN
Biotin Requiring CO2 Fixation Reactions
1. Acetyl CoA carboxylase
2. Propionyl CoA carboxylase
3. Pyruvate carboxylase
Biotin-Independent Carboxylation Reactions
Biotin Antagonists
FOLIC ACID
Co-enzyme Functions of Folic Acid
Causes for Folate Deficiency
Deficiency Manifestations
1. Reduced DNA synthesis
2. Macrocytic Anemia
3. Homocysteinemia
4. Birth Defects
5. Cancer
Assessment of Folate Deficiency
Sources of Folic Acid
Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA)
Folic Acid Therapy
Folate Antagonists
1a. Sulphonamides
1b. Pyrimethamine
1c. Aminopterin and Amethopterin
VITAMIN B12
2. Absorption of Vitamin B12
Transport and Storage
Functional Role of B12
A. Methyl Malonyl CoA Isomerase
B. Homocysteine Methyl Transferase
C. Methyl Folate Trap and Folate Deficiency
Causes of B12 Deficiency
1. Nutritional
2. Decrease in absorption
3. Addisonian pernicious anemia
4. Gastric atrophy
5. Pregnancy
6. Fish tapeworm
Deficiency Manifestations
Requirement of Vitamin B12
Dietary Sources
CHOLINE
Biochemical Functions
INOSITOL
ASCORBIC ACID (VITAMIN C)
Biochemical Functions of Vitamin C
1. Reversible oxidation-reduction
2. Hydroxylation of proline and lysine
3. Tryptophan metabolism
4. Tyrosine metabolism
5. Iron metabolism
6. Hemoglobin metabolism
7. Folic acid metabolism
8. Steroid synthesis
9. Phagocytosis
10. Anti-oxidant property
11. Cataract
Deficiency Manifestations of Vitamin C
1. Scurvy
2. Infantile scurvy (Barlow's disease)
3. Hemorrhagic tendency
4. Internal hemorrhage
5. Oral cavity
6. Bones
7. Anemia
Dietary Sources of Vitamin C
Requirement of Vitamin C
Therapeutic Use of Vitamin C
CHAPTER 35:
Mineral Metabolism and Abnormalities
CALCIUM (CA++)
Absorption
A. Mechanism of absorption of calcium
B. Factors causing increased absorption
C. Factors causing decreased absorption
Calcium in cells
Functions of Calcium
1. Activation of enzymes
2. Muscles
3. Nerve conduction
4. Secretion of hormones
5. Second messenger
6. Vascular permeability
7. Coagulation
8. Myocardium
9. Bone and teeth
10. Calpains
Calcium in blood
Factors Regulating Blood Calcium Level
A. Vitamin D
B. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Mechanism of action of PTH
C. Calcitonin
Calcitonin, Calcitriol and PTH Act Together
D. Phosphorus
E. Children
F. Serum Proteins
G. Alkalosis and Acidosis
H. Kidney Threshold
Hypercalcemia
Hypocalcemia
A. Tetany
Bone Mineralization and Demineralization
Markers of bone diseases
PHOSPHORUS
MAGNESIUM (Mg++)
SULFUR
IRON (Fe)
Requirement of Iron (ICMR)
Sources of Iron
Factors Influencing Absorption of Iron
A. Reduced form of iron
B. Ascorbic acid
C. Interfering substances
D. Other minerals
E. Mucosal Block Theory
F. Regulation of absorption by 4 mechanisms
Iron Transport in Blood and Uptake by Cells
Storage of Iron
Iron is Conserved
Excretion of Iron
Iron Deficiency Anemia
A. Causes for iron deficiency
B. Microscopic appearance
C. Clinical manifestations
D. Laboratory Findings
E. Treatment of Iron Deficiency
Iron Toxicity
COPPER (CU)
IODINE
ZINC (Zn)
FLUORIDE
SELENIUM (Se)
MANGANESE (MN)
MOLYBDENUM (MO)
COBALT (Co)
NICKEL (Ni)
CHROMIUM (Cr)
LITHIUM (Li)
Related topics
CHAPTER 36:
Energy Metabolism and Nutrition
IMPORTANCE OF CARBOHYDRATES
NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE OF LIPIDS
IMPORTANCE OF PROTEINS
PROTEIN–ENERGY MALNUTRITION
Cachexia due to Diseases
OBESITY
PRESCRIPTION OF DIET
CHAPTER 37:
Detoxification and Biotransformation of Xenobiotics
PHASE ONE REACTIONS
2. Reduction Reactions
3. Hydrolysis
PHASE TWO REACTIONS; CONJUGATIONS
PHASE THREE REACTIONS
CHAPTER 38:
Environmental Pollution and Heavy Metal Poisons
CORROSIVES
IRRITANTS
HEAVY METAL POISONS
1. Lead Poisoning
1-A. Sources of lead poison
1-B. Signs and Symptoms of Lead Poisoning
1-C. Treatment of Lead Poisoning
2. Mercury Poisoning
2-A. Elemental mercury
2-B. Inorganic Mercury
2-C. Organic Mercury
3. Aluminium Toxicity
4. Arsenic Toxicity
PESTICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
OCCUPATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS
AIR POLLUTANTS
TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN FOODSTUFFS
CHAPTER 39:
Nucleotides: Chemistry and Metabolism
BIOSYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
Salvage Pathway
Analogues as Purine Synthesis Inhibitors
Degradation of Purine Nucleotides
URIC ACID
Disorders of Purine Metabolism
GOUT
Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome
Hypouricemia
DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF PYRIMIDINE
Disorders of Pyrimidine Metabolism
Orotic Aciduria
Anticancer Agents Acting on Pyrimidines
CHAPTER 40:
Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid (DNA): Structure and Replication
STRUCTURE OF DNA
Watson-Crick Model of DNA Structure
1. Right handed double helix
2. The base pairing rule
3. Hydrogen bonding
4. Antiparallel
5. Other features
Higher Organization of DNA
Histones
Nucleosomes
Introns, Exons, Cistron
REPLICATION OF DNA
Cell cycle
DNA REPAIR MECHANISMS
Diseases Associated with DNA Repair
Telomere and Telomerase
Hydrolysis of DNA
Inhibitors of DNA Replication
CHAPTER 41:
Transcription and Translation
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
1. TRANSCRIPTION PROCESS
2. Signals for Initiation of Transcription
3. Initiation of Transcription
3-A. Bacterial System
3-B. Mammalian System
4. Elongation Process of Transcription
5. Termination of Transcription
6. Post-transcriptional Processing
7. Removal of Introns
Small Nuclear RNAs (snRNAs)
Spliceosomes
Ribozymes
Alternative splicing
Alternate editing of mRNA
Untranslated regions of mRNA
Reverse Transcriptase
Inhibitors of RNA Synthesis
PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS
Transfer RNA (tRNA) or (sRNA)
A. Structure of tRNA Molecule
B. Acceptor Arm is at the 3' End
C. Anticodon Arm of tRNA
D. DHU Arm of tRNA
E. Pseudouridine Arm of tRNA
F. Processing of tRNA
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
A. Components of rRNA
Genetic Code
Salient Features of the Genetic Code
i. Triplet Codons
ii. Nonoverlapping
iii. Nonpunctuated
iv. Degenerate
v. Unambiguous
vi. Universal
vii. Wobbling Phenomenon
viii. Terminator Codons
ix. Initiator Codon
Mitochondria have different codes
TRANSLATION PROCESS
A. Activation of Amino Acid (Charging reaction)
B. Initiation of Protein Synthesis
B-2. Formation of 43S Pre-initiation Complex
B-3. Formation of 43S Initiation Complex
B-4. Formation of 80S Ribosomal Assembly
C. Elongation Process of Translation
C-1. Binding of New Aminoacyl tRNA
C-2. Peptide Bond Formation
C-3. Translocation Process
D. Energy Requirements
E. Termination Process of Translation
Protein Targetting
Post-translational Processing
A. Proteolytic cleavage
B. Modifications of amino acids
C. Subunit aggregation
Inhibitors of Protein Synthesis
i. Reversible Inhibitors in Bacteria
ii. Irreversible Inhibitors in Bacteria
iii. Inhibitors of Protein Synthesis in Mammals
Mitochondrial DNA and RNA
Genomics and Proteomics
Micro-RNA
CHAPTER 42:
Inheritance, Mutations and Control of Gene Expression
MUTATIONS
1. Classification of Mutations
1-A. Substitution
1-B. Deletion
1-C. Insertion
2. Effects of Mutations
2-A. Silent Mutation
2-B. Mis-sense but Acceptable Mutation
2-C. Mis-sense; Partially Acceptable Mutation
2-D. Mis-sense; Unacceptable Mutation
2-E. Nonsense; Terminator Codon Mutation
2-F. Frameshift Mutation
2-G. Conditional Mutations
3. Mutagens and Mutagenesis
4. Manifestations of Mutations
4-A. Lethal Mutations
4-B. Silent Mutations
4-C. Beneficial Mutations
4-D. Carcinogenic Effect
CELL CYCLE
REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
The Lac Operon
A. Transcription is Normally Repressed
B. Derepression of Lac Operon
D. Clinical Applications
Regulation of Genes by Repression
Hormone Response Elements (HRE)
VIRUSES
CHAPTER 43:
Recombinant DNA Technology and Gene Therapy
RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
Applications of Recombinant Technology
1. Quantitative Preparation of Biomolecules
2. Risk of Contamination is Eliminated
3. Specific Probes for Diagnosis of Diseases
Restriction Endonucleases (RE)
VECTORS
Procedure of DNA Recombination
1. Preparation of Specific Human Gene
2. Preparation of Chimeric DNA Molecules
3. Cloning of Chimeric DNA
4. Transfection of Vector into the Host
5. Plasmid Carries Antibiotic Resistance Genes
6. Selection of Colony having Desired Gene
7. Expression Vectors
Human Recombinant Proteins
Gene Library
Linkage Analysis
Human Genome Project (HGP)
GENE THERAPY
STEM CELLS
Related topics
CHAPTER 44:
Mechanisms of Action of Hormones
CHAPTER 45:
Hypothalamic and Pituitary Hormones
CHAPTER 46:
Steroid Hormones
ADRENAL CORTICAL HORMONES
Assessment of Glucocorticoid Secretion
1. Basal level of cortisol
2. Estimation of urinary free cortisol
3. Plasma ACTH
Assessment of Adrenal Androgen Secretion
1. Adrenal Hyperfunction
2. Adrenal Hypofunction
Primary Hyperaldosteronism
(Conn's Syndrome)
Adrenogenital Syndrome (AG Syndrome)
SEX HORMONES
CHAPTER 47:
Thyroid Hormones
CHAPTER 48:
Signal Molecules and Growth Factors
CHAPTER 49:
Immunochemistry
STRUCTURE OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS
Different Classes of Immunoglobulins
1. lmmunoglobulin G (IgG)
2. Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
3. Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
4. Immunoglobulin E (IgE)
PARAPROTEINEMIAS
COMPLEMENT SYSTEM
IMMUNODEFICIENCY STATES
Primary and Secondary Immunoresponses
Transposition of Genes
Molecular Structure of Antigens
Soluble Factors
CHAPTER 50:
Biochemistry of AIDS and HIV
THE HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS
Immunology of AIDS
ANTI-HIV DRUGS
Prevention
CHAPTER 51:
Biochemistry of Cancer
ONCOGENIC VIRUSES
ONCOGENES
Anti-oncogenes or Oncosuppressor Genes
Differences between Normal and Tumor cells
Doubling time
Malignant Transformation
Contact inhibition
Tumor Immunology
TUMOR MARKERS
Clinically Important Tumor Markers
1. Alpha Fetoprotein (AFP)
2. Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA)
3. Beta Chain of Chorionic Gonadotropin
4. Cancer Antigen 125 (CA-125)
5. Tissue Polypeptide Antigen (TPA)
6. Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA)
Other Tumor Markers used occasionally
ANTICANCER DRUGS
CHAPTER 52:
Tissue Proteins in Health and Disease
COLLAGEN
Abnormalities in Collagen
1. Osteogenesis Imperfecta
2. Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome (EDS)
3. Alport Syndrome
4. Epidermolysis bullosa
5. Marfan's Syndrome
6. Menke's Disease
7. Deficiency of Ascorbic Acid
8. Homocystinuria
9. Lathyrism
ELASTIN
Fibronectin
Laminin
Keratins
Contractile Proteins
MUSCLE PROTEINS
Cellular and Sub-cellular Movements
LENS PROTEINS
PRIONS
Prion Proteins: Abnormal Tertiary Structure
Abnormal Proteins can be infectious
Alzheimer's Disease (AD)
BIOCHEMISTRY OF AGING
CHAPTER 53:
Applications of Isotopes in Medicine
INTRODUCTION
ISOTOPES
RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactive Decay
1. Alpha Decay
2. Beta Radiation
3. Gamma Radiation
Half-life of Radioactivity
Units of Radioactivity
1. Curie (Ci)
2. Becqueral (Bq)
3. Rontgen (R)
4. Rad and Gray
5. Rem
Applications of Radioactivity in Research
Applications of Radioactivity for Diagnosis
Applications of Radioactivity in Treatment
A. Unsealed Sources
B. Sealed Sources
C. Teletherapy
Fractionation of Doses
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION
Radiation Protection
CHAPTER 54:
General Techniques for Separation, Purification and Quantitation
ELECTROPHORESIS
Ultracentrifugation
CHROMATOGRAPHY
RADIO IMMUNO ASSAY (RIA)
ELISA TEST
COLORIMETER
Spectrophotometer
Optical Chemical Sensors
Biosensors
Flame Photometer
The pH Meter
AUTO ANALYSER
MASS SPECTROMETRY (MS)
Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorter (FACS)
CHAPTER 55:
Molecular Diagnostics
HYBRIDIZATION AND BLOT TECHNIQUES
Applications of Molecular Cloning in Medicine
1. Diagnosis of Genetic Diseases
2. Detection of Specific Sequences
3. DNA Finger Printing in Forensic Medicine
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
Clinical Applications of RFLP
POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)
Hybridoma Technology and Monoclonal Antibodies
1. Differences between monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies
2. Production of Hybridoma
3. Applications of monoclonal antibody
4. Advantages of monoclonal antibody
MUTATION DETECTION TECHNIQUES
Transgenesis
Fusion Proteins
DNA Sequencing
Bioinformatics
Nanotechnology
1. Drug Delivery
2. Therapeutics
3. Imaging Techniques
4. Antimicrobial Techniques
5. Cellular Repair
6. Aquasomes
Appendices
Appendix I: Abbreviations Used in this Book
Appendix II: Normal Values (Reference Values)
Appendix III: Conversion Chart
Appendix IV: Greek Alphabet (Commonly used letters as symbols)
Appendix V: Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) of Essential Nutrients
Appendix VI: Composition of Nutrients in Selected Common Food Materials
Appendix VII: Table Showing Surface Area for Different Heights and Weights
Appendix VIII: Ideal Body Weight and Height of Different Age Groups (Adapted from the Indian Council of Medical Research)
INDEX
TOC
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