T A TT OO MARKS T attooing is common among Indians in the lower social strata of society . V arious pigments like indigo, carbon, vermilion, Indian ink and Prussian blue are introduced into the dermis using pointed needles. Designs and patterns are usually found tattooed over the inner aspect of forearm and the dorsum of hand. T attoo marks, are important identification marks both of the living as well as of the dead. They especially aid the verification of identity of decomposed bodies where the facial features are grossly altered. This is because the tattoo marks remain intact even after the epidermal layer of skin has been peeled of f or destroyed due to putrefactive changes. These marks establish the identity of the individual from their designs, patterns, situations and extent. They may indicate the religion of a person and are particularly useful in the identification of an exhumed body (Figs 1.1 to 1.5). Fig. 1.1: A tattoo mark of two lions facing each other and writings over the front of chest Fig. 1.3: T attoo marks on the upper and forearm (inner aspect) Fig. 1.2: T attoo marks of Lord Krishna and alphabet s SIV on the right forearm Fig. 1.

Colour Atlas of Forensic Medicine 6 Examination of the scene of death or crime is important in the investigation and reveals evidence consistent with suicide, homicide or accident (Figs 2.1 to 2.8). A weapon of assault may be left at the scene of homicide or bullets and empty cartridge cases may be found. In suicidal hanging, a tilted stool or a chair is often found kicked of f. At the scene of death the use of a dressing mirror , a suicide note or a farewell letter and other preparations with a strong motive may be available as circumstantial and corroborative evidence. Fig. 2.1: Scene of death of st abbing Fig. 2.

The body deposited in the cold storage of the mortuary should remain inside or on the trolly after its removal until the arrival of the duty doctor . It should be handled, washed or cleaned only under his/her supervision. An authority letter from the concerned police investigating of ficer or executive magistrate (MRO), or in the jurisdiction of Mumbai from a Coroner , should follow the dead body forming the requisition. As a routine the requisition should be received from the Police Of ficer or through the PC on duty along with the dead body after holding the inquest. As a rule, the duty doctor should perform the post-mortem examination on the dead body soon after receiving the requisition without any undue delay . Along with the requisition, the other docu- ments that should also be produced by the Investigating Of ficer at the time of autopsy include a copy of the inquest report, death summary from the hospital in a treated case or the entire record of the admission case-sheet along with the out-patient records of the casualty , X-ray films and extracts from the accident register , etc. Post-mortem examinations are performed during the day from 9 am to 5 pm in the mortuaries except in emer gencies and in law and order situations they can be done at any time with no restrictions of the day or night. The modern mortuaries are usually well-equipped with autopsy instruments, shadowless overhead lamps, exhaust fans, proper ventilation, flyproofing, adequate spacing, autopsy tables, water connections, doctor's rooms, cold storage facilities, etc. and thus, are suitable for emer gency autopsies. T ransport facilities and conveyance are usually available or else provided by the I nvestigating Of ficers. The identity of the dead body should be established by the relatives, friends or the concerned police before commencing the autopsy . The names of the relatives with their relationship to the deceased, and the service number of the Police C onstable on duty with the dead body with his name and the Police Station concerned should be noted. Then the features and at least two identification marks like moles, scars and tattoo marks are noted. The height, weight, built, sex, approximate age, scalp hair with its length, colour , singeing when present, and the presence of any abnormality , defect or deformity are noted. A photograph of the face taken for facial features forms an additional identification mark in establishing the identity of the person (Figs 3.1 and 3.2). EXTERNAL EXAMINA TION The details of clothing are noted (Figs 3.3 and 3.4). T ailor's labels and laundry marks are to be searched for in unidentified and decomposed bodies. The presence of scents, perforations, tearing or loosening of buttons and hooks, kinking in safety pins, semen and blood stains, etc. should be noted in detail. The clothing of the dead body are important in the investigation of the case and being court exhibits are always examined and preserved (Fig. 3.5). After the body is undressed all the injuries on the dead body are noted (Figs 3.6 and 3.7). The distribution of post- mortem staining and its colour is noted.

The pathological lesions and disease processes that cause sudden, unexpected natural deaths are listed below: A. Car diovascular System: 1. Coronary thrombosis (Figs 4.1 to 4.5) with myo- cardial infarction 2. Coronary embolism from subacute bacterial endo- carditis, mural thrombus or atheromatous plaque 3. Myocardial infarction secondary to coronary artery disease 4. Myocardial infarction with softening of necrosed myocardium, i.e. myomalacia cardis and rupture with intrapericardial haemorrhage, i.e. haemopericardium and cardiac tamponade Fig. 4.1: TS of coronary artery . Coronary thrombosis on microscopic examination. S pindle-shaped sp aces of cholesterol cryst als are also seen Fig. 4.3: Myocardial infarction Fig. 4.

RIGOR MORTIS Rigor mortis is the death stiffening that occurs within one to two hours of death. The muscles of the entire body become stiff with a slight bending of the elbows, wrists, fingers of hands, and knees. It occurs first in the eyelids, muscles of the neck, lower jaw and then in chest, abdomen and lower limbs. It disappears after 24 to 48 hours with the onset of decomposition. The presence of rigor mortis is tested by bending the neck, elbows and the knee joints routinely during autopsy (Fig. 5.1). CADA VERIC SP ASM Muscles of the hands undergo spasm suddenly at the moment of death from excitement and tension (Figs 5.2 and 5.3). It is indicative of the mode of death. The suicidal weapon may be found firmly grasped in the hands of the deceased. In cases of drowning, sand, mud, floating objects like a piece of wood, grass and leaves, small fish or shells may be found in hands and rarely between toes of feet to indicate that the person was alive at the time of drowning. In cases of homicide the scalp hair , button from clothing, etc. of the assailant may be found firmly grasped in the hand of the victim and helps in identifying the murderer . Fig. 5.1: Rigor mortis Fig. 5.

Colour Atlas of Forensic Medicine 34 MECHANICAL INJURIES An injury may be caused to a person by physical violence, heat application, exposure to intense cold, electrical contact, or contact with corrosive substances. A wound is a dis- solution of surface continuity in the skin and tissues resulting from injury . Classification of Injuries 1. Abrasions 2. Contusions 3. Lacerated wounds 4. Incised wounds 5. S tab wounds 6. Firearm injuries or gunshot wounds ABRASIONS Abrasions are superficial injuries of the skin, resulting from friction and forceful sliding in contact with a rough gritty surface of the ground or irregular surface of an object. They commonly result from a fall on the ground in a road acci- dent and in inflicted assaults using blunt weapons like a stick or a stone. When pointed objects, e.g. fingernails, thorns, and needles are dragged across the skin abrasions are produced. The dermis is exposed from scraping away of the epidermis/cuticle and appears raw with oozing of blood and serum in a recent abrasion, and is soon covered by lymph and cellular debris which gets dried up to form a protective layer of crust. The bleeding is slight and abrasions heal rapidly without any scar formation. Sepsis is also mini- mal and usually there are no complications. Classification of Abrasions 1. Scratches 2. Grazes or brush abrasions 3. Patterned abrasions a. Impact abrasions b. Pressure abrasions Scratches A scratch results from a pointed or sharp object on the skin, e.g. fingernail causes crescentic, curved or straight scratch marks. Commonly the characteristic curved fingernail marks are found on victims of rape indicating struggle and resistance. The tags of tissue from the skin cuticle are heaped-up at the end of the scratch mark with a sharp commencement indicating its direction. At the endpoint a scratch tails of f commonly (Figs 6.1 to 6.5). Sharp tip of a knife often causes linear scratch marks in stabbing attempts or while withdrawing the knife after stabbing. They are common in a struggle by the victim of stabbing. Grazes or Brush Abrasions Grazed abrasions are scraping injuries to the skin in which superficial layers of the skin are removed exposing the dermis.

Accidental burns are common among women as their loose garments catch fire while cooking. W omen also commit suicide by pouring kerosene on their clothing and set fire to themselves due to domestic worries, broken love affairs, cruelty or harassment by husband or relatives of her hus- band for demand of dowry (Fig. 7.1). Pregnancy and lactation may be the cause for suicidal tendency in a woman who dies of kerosene burns. During autopsy the early pregnancy , products of conception and the foetus are found inside the uterus (Figs 7.2 and 7.3). Men also commit suicide by pouring kerosene upon themselves due to domestic worries, stress and strains of life, or due to unsoundness of mind. The flame causes burns over the face, neck, front of chest, abdomen and upper limbs. The burned areas reveal inflammatory redness of vital reaction and blister formation (Fig. 7.4). Fig. 7.1: Burns over the back, limbs, head and scalp hair . A case of suicidal kerosene burns Fig. 7.2: Suicidal kerosene burns in a pregnant woman (foetus about 3 months). Blackening with soot deposit, blistering, peeling of skin cuticle and erythema of exposed dermis seen during autopsy Fig. 7.3: Kerosene burns: A case of suicide by pregnant woman of about two months pregnancy . Skin shows blackening soot deposit, patchy area of cuticle destruction and inflammatory redness.

Fig. 8.3: A case of chronic starvation and malnutrition showing gross wasting of muscles Acute starvation results from sudden stoppage of food intake, and the person may die within about 60 days (when fluids are allowed). When both fluids and food is with-held he or she may die in 10 to 12 days. Chr onic starvation occurs from gradual deficiency of food intake during famines. Accidental starvation occurs when persons are trapped in mines. W ilful refusal to take food or wilful withholding of food also causes starvation. Emaciation and muscular wasting occur in chronic diseases, malignant cachexia and chronic starvation. Common findings include hollow sunken eyes, prominent cheek bones, ribs and other bony prominences, and a retracted abdomen (scaphoid abdomen) (Figs 8.1 to 8.3). Fig. 8.1: An exhumed body resembling st arvation death marked emaciation and bony projections are prominent. Rice and salt placed inside the grave alongwith the dead body giving a false appearance of maggots Fig. 8.

Colour Atlas of Forensic Medicine 92 HANGING Hanging is a violent form of death resulting from asphyxia, venous congestion, cerebral anoxia or fracture-dislocation of upper cervical vertebrae (judicial hanging). The pressure over the carotid sinus by the ligature causes reflex cardiac inhibition and sudden death. Hanging is caused by suspension of the body by a ligature around the neck and weight of the body acts as the constricting force. A person immediately released from the noose of hanging may survive for few hours but may die of cerebral anoxia and damage to the vital centres in the brainstem (Fig. 9.1). In complete hanging the feet of the victim do not touch the ground and in partial hanging the feet rest on the ground or on a platform. In partial hanging the position adopted commonly is kneeling (Figs 9.2 and 9.3), sitting, reclining or prone from a low point of suspension (Fig. 9.4). The cause of death is asphyxia resulting from closure of the laryngeal opening by the base of the tongue pushed upwards and backwards against the posterior pharyngeal wall. Rapid loss of consciousness takes place and death occurs within a few minutes. The ligature on the neck is obliquely placed on either side and extends on to the occiput with the point of suspension in the midline of occipital region (typical hanging or classical hanging). In partial hanging, the point of suspension is at a lower level and is away from the centre of the occiput (Figs 9.5 and 9.6). The situation of the knot in the ligature round the neck may be at the mastoid behind the ear , in front of the ear at the angle of the lower jaw or underneath the chin (Figs 9.7 to 9.10). The ligature mark produced on the neck occupies the middle or lower part of the neck. Fig. 9.1: Survived after immediate release of the noose of hanging.

Colour Atlas of Forensic Medicine 112 A vir gin is a female who has not had sexual intercourse. The breasts are small, firm and hemispherical, the nipple is small, and the areola is pinkish or dark depending on the complexion of the individual (Fig. 10.1). The hymen, four - chette and posterior commissure are intact in a vir gin. Labia majora completely covers the vaginal opening. The labia minora are pink, clitoris is small and the vestibule is narrow . The mucous membrane of vagina is rugosed and the vagina is narrow . The hymen is a thin transparent fold of mucous membrane situated at the vaginal orifice. A normal hymen may be annular (with a central opening) (Figs 10.2 and 10.3), or semilunar or crescentic with an anterior opening. Cribri- form (with several openings), fimbriated (having undulated notchy mar gin but the notches do not extend to the vaginal wall), septate (having two openings and a central septum), and imperforate hymen (having no opening and stretching across the vaginal opening) are the other varieties. The normal hymen is usually ruptured during the first act of coitus. The tearing may commonly take place in the 6 oclock or 3 oclock position. Recent tearing of the hymen is accompanied by local bleeding, tenderness, swelling and pain. In children the hymen is situated at a higher level deep in the vagina, and thus escapes rupture in sexual assaults. Repeated acts of coitus and deliveries may leave only tags of hymen at the periphery of the vaginal opening in the form of carunculae hymenale. Fig. 10.1: A virgin having hemispherical breasts with small nipples Fig. 10.

Colour Atlas of Forensic Medicine 114 The crown-heel length of the foetus in centimetres and the use of Rule of Haase are helpful in determining the intrauterine length of the foetus, i.e. duration of pregnancy . Length of the umbilical cord and the diameter of placenta help in determining the period of pregnancy . Criminal abortion is induced commonly before the third month of pregnancy . Artificial rupture of membranes by introducing uterine sounds; urinary catheters, etc. is usually resorted to. Abortion may take place in a few hours to a few days. The aborted foetus or products of conception along with the instruments used are often available at the scene. Criminal abortion is done even during latter months of pregnancy by medical men using various instruments. Dilatation of cervix uteri locally and artificial rupture of membrane is the method commonly employed. V olsellum forceps to steady the cervix, Hegar s dilators to dilate the cervix and curette to remove foetal parts are the instruments used. Amniotic fluid when drained of f stimulates uterine contractions and causes abortion. Evacuation of foetal parts may be incomplete and any attempt to pull the head of the foetus from undilated cervix may cause shock and sudden death from reflex cardiac inhibition (Figs 1 1.1 to 1 1.6). DEVELOPMENT OF FOETUS First month: The embryo is microscopic with chorionic vesicle. It measures 7.5 to 10 mm with head folds, medullary groove, limb buds, and yolk sac (Fig. 1 1.7). Eyes, nose and ears are just appearing. Fig. 11.1: Criminal abortion at fourth month. Length of the foetus is 16 cm Fig. 11.2: Criminal abortion: Evacuated foetus (3-4 months), umbilical cord and placenta with amniotic sac membrane.

Killing of an infant by ligature strangulation is a common method of infanticide soon after delivery (Fig. 12.1). The presence of ligature mark is an important post-mortem finding (Fig. 12.2). Asphyxial signs of cyanosis and petechial haemorrhages are present on examination. Ant-bite erosions and post-mortem staining may be mistaken for abrasions and contusions but the absence of vital reaction and ecchymosis indicate their post-mortem nature. A piece of cloth may be used around the neck and commonly left intact. It indicates a deliberate act of commission to cause death of the infant by the mother or by some other person. Signs of live birth are present on examination. The skin is red and covered with vernix caseosa. A thick layer of this cheesy material is found in the axillary folds, neck folds and in the groin. The head presents caput succidaneum in the scalp, the face is cyanosed, and oozing of blood from the nostrils and mouth is seen. The cut end of the umbilical cord may show fresh blood. T esticles are found descended into the scrotum in the male foetus. In the female foetus labia majora cover the clitoris and labia minora. The rectum may contain greenish meconium which may be found voided around the perineum and thighs. Lower end of the femur shows epiphyseal centre, 0.5 cm in diameter , ossification centres in manubrium sterni and all sternal segments are formed. The centres of ossification in the calcaneum, talus and cuboid are well-developed (Figs 12.3 to 12.6). Fig. 12.1: An infant strangled to death with a piece of cloth a case of infanticide Fig. 12.

Colour Atlas of Forensic Medicine 122 Ant-bite erosions are found on the eyelids, angles of mouth, axillae, groin and scrotum in a dead body from nibbling by ants in these moist areas. These leisons are mistaken for antemortem abrasions unless careful examination is done using a hand lens to see the irregular-nibbled margins (Fig. 13.1). Post-mortem drying (Figs 13.2 and 13.3) of scrotum due to evaporation of moisture from the scrotum when exposed to dry hot sun in summer is an artefact with shrunken dark-brown skin often mistaken for injury to the scrotum (Fig. 13.4). Post-mortem destruction of soft tissues around wounds, eyelids, nose, ears, lips, genitalia and around anus occurs due to eating of soft tissues by crabs, fishes, turtles and other aquatic animals. The vital reaction of infiltration of blood is absent and differentiates these from antemortem injuries (Figs 13.5 to 13.7). Fig. 13.1: Ant-bites over the eyelids, not to be mistaken for antemortem injuries Fig. 13.2: Post-mortem drying of skin due to exposure in dry hot sun.

Colour Atlas of Forensic Medicine 126 Exhumation is done on the orders of the concerned executive magistrate on the request of the concerned police and the relatives of the deceased. It is also done when a second autopsy is called for . The Medical Of ficer or forensic medi- cine expert is to be present at the grave site and guide in the exhumation and in careful removal of the dead body . Identity of the deceased s grave is to be established before digging to prevent exhumation of a dif ferent body (Fig. 14.1). Usually the relatives of the deceased and the concerned police identify the actual place of burial and the deceased s grave from the mixed graves in the open graveyard. The grave is dug and loose earth removed till the body is found at the bottom of the grave pit. The depth of the grave is measured. The post-mortem injuries on exhumed bodies in the form of abrasions and lacerations are seen as the decomposed reddish muscle mass is soft and fragile. They are mistaken for antemortem injuries and ecchymosis. White fungus growth on the skin may take place in buried bodies (Fig. 14.2). The first autopsy sutures in an exhumed body for second autopsy or repost-mortem may reveal simulated stab injuries over the abdomen when they give away . White fungus also may grow on the skin of buried bodies (Fig. 14.3) after first post-mortem examination. Routinely the body is removed with its wrappings from the grave and is placed by the side of the grave pit (Fig. 14.4). Mud and coverings are removed and the body is examined (Fig. 14.5). The identity is established by the relatives and friends of the deceased (Figs 14.6 and 14.7). The details of the clothing and the covering are noted. Fig. 14.1: Grave identification. Powdered chalk or slake lime is used for demarcation around the grave of the deceased Fig. 14.2: Post-mortem injuries produced by grave-diggers.

Colour Atlas of Forensic Medicine 130 Determining the sex of the entire skeleton (Figs 15.1 and 15.2) is possible with 100% accuracy . From the presence of a little decomposed tissue and ligaments emitting foul smell it is possible to estimate the time since death as less than three months (Figs 15.3 to 15.7). Maceration method removes adherent soft tissue from bones and leaves them clean for detailed examination. The disagreeable foul smell is also removed to facilitate proper examination. Fig. 15.1: Skeletal remains with little amount of soft tissue adherent to the bones: (1) Skull: Age and sex can be determined. Identity can be established by superimposition photographic technique. Fractures of skull when present reveal cause of death, (2) stature can be estimated from the intact humerus using: Trotter and Glesers formulae or Pearsons formula using the length of the long bone, i.e. humerus Fig. 15.2 A: Skeletonised body after exhumation.

Colour Atlas of Forensic Medicine 140 PLANT AND VEGET ABLE POISONS Datura Plant There are two varieties of the datura plants (Figs 16.1 to 16.3). 1. Datura alba which has white flowers. 2. Datura niger which has purple flowers. The fruit is spherical and has spines (thorn apple). Active principles (Alkaloids in seeds): Hyoscine, hyoscyamine and atropine. Figs 16.1A and B: Datura alba fruits Fig. 16.

BRAIN AND ITS COVERINGS Meninges (Coverings of Brain) The meninges or coverings of the brain consist of three membranes: (i) dura mater , (ii) arachnoid mater , and (iii) pia mater . The dura mater is a tough fibrous membrane and forms the outer covering of the brain. The falx cerebri is a sickle-shaped projection forming a partition between the two cerebral hemispheres extending from it. It forms a tent- like partition between the back part of cerebral hemispheres placed above it, and the cerebellum below the tent attached to the anterior and posterior clinoid processes, bony mar gin of the posterior cranial fossa, and petrous parts of the temporal bones. A lar ge aperture is present in the midline of the tent for the brainstem to descend into the foramen magnum. The dura mater also encloses lar ge venous sinuses which receive venous blood drained from the brain. The arachnoid mater is a very thin and transparent layer of loose connective tissue with flattened cells. The subdural space which is a potential space lies between the dura and the arachnoid mater . The pia mater is a layer of loose connective tissue fibres with flattened cells. It is intimately adherent to the grey mat te r and contains blood vessels and their accompanying nerves. Lobes of Cerebral Hemispheres Figure 17.1 depicts a lateral view of left side of the brain with dif ferent lobes. 1. F r ontal lobe: The pre-central cortex (motor area) is situated in pre-central gyrus and extends on to medial surface of the hemisphere, which is the centre for volition. The anterior part of the frontal lobe forms the seat of intelligence. The speech centre is situated in the right-handed person on the left side in inferior frontal convolution. 2. Parietal lobe: The sensory area is situated in post-central gyrus, posterior wall and the lip of central sulcus. It forms the receiving centre for appreciation of senses, i.e. of touch, pain, heat, cold and also for taste. 3. T emporal lobe: The centre for hearing, i.e. auditory sensory area is situated in superior temporal gyrus and is hidden in the sylvian fissure. 4. Occipital lobe: The sensory area of vision is situated in the posterior pole and calcarine fissure of occipital lobe. The olfactory centre, i.e. area for appreciation of smell is situated in the uncinate part of hippocampal gyrus. Fig. 17.

TORTURE T o r tur e is infliction of pain or a method of extracting information from the victim (Fig. 18.1). V iolence is the use of unjust force. Thus, there is dif ference between torture and violence. T orture is violence whereas violence is not torture. T orture of woman is covered under section: 498-A IPC. Married women and female children are the common victims of domestic violence and torture. Both, physical and mental violence is perpetuated upon them. The af fair is treated as private and made to confine to the house itself with the interest of protecting the family honour . The mental violence is common in the newly married. The girl child is deprived of proper food and subjected to ill-treatment and beating. Definition Given by UN V iolence in the family manifests itself in physical mistreatment often repititive, which is inter -related with the exercise of mental torture, neglect of basic needs and sexual molestation. V iolence is generally exercised in the closest family unit where there are dependency relationship and results in grave injury to the victims. Repititive violence may be distinguished from the occasional occurence of violence. Research points to the fact that where immediate crisis intervention is not employed at occasional incidences, such acts tend to become repititive and more severe. T o protect from the domestic violence the following are the various laws: Section: 498-A (IPC): Husband or relative of husband of a woman subjecting her to cruelty . Cruelty a. Any wilful conduct which is of such a nature as is likely to drive the woman to commit suicide or to cause grave injury or danger to life, limb or health (whether mental or physical) of the woman, or b . H arassment of the woman where such harassment is with a view to coercing her or any person related to her to meet any unlawful demand for any property or valuable security or is on account of failure by her or any person related to her to meet such demand (Punishment: Imprisonment for three years and fine). Fig. 18.

The nucleus of a cell in person s body contains 46 chromosomes (23 inherited from the mother and 23 from the father). The chromosomes are the folded and packed DNA strands. If the DNA strands of a cell s 46 chromosomes are separated and joined together end-to-end, the length will be about one metre. At each location the sequence (i.e. unbroken series) is repeated a dif ferent number of times. This variability in location and in the number of repeats of the sequence (i.e. unbroken series) is unique to each individual and forms the basis of DNA fingerprinting (Fig. 19.1). Medicolegal Point s 1. DNA fingerprinting is based on unique pattern in the DNA found in human cells. 2. The test plays a major role in criminal investigation and forms the important evidence for conviction in the court of law . The criminal can be identified (except identical twins) from the identical DNA fingerprints as every individual produces a unique band pattern. 3. Samples of fresh blood, and dried blood stains, fresh semen and dried semen stains, hair roots, bone marrow , etc. can be tested. The seminal stains found on the under garments of the victims (female) can be proved as that of alleged accused (male) in a crime of rape. Fig. 19.1: DNA fingerprinting 4. In the DNA fingerprinting test, once the bands inherited from the mother are discorded all the remaining bands must match those of the child s real father .

Colour Atlas of Forensic Medicine 198 Brandy , whisky , gin, rum, and beer are available in the market for drinking (Figs 20.1 and 20.2). ETHYL ALCOHOL Ethyl alcohol is contained in them in various percentage. Ethyl alcohol is prepared from fermenting fruits, flowers and tubers which contain sugars by adding yeast. Germinating barley grains are used for making malt liquors and beer . Mollasses (drainings of raw sugar) is also used in preparing alcohol. Country liquors prepared in tribal areas are from distillation of fermented mohava flowers. W ines are obtained from fermentation of grapes and Feni from cashew (nut) plant fruits (Fig. 20.3). The poor man s drinks are toddy/sendhi in rural areas, are obtained as sap from palm trees. On fermentation of the juice the arrack is formed and used as an intoxicant. Chlorol hydrate is added to them for extrakick (Figs 20.4 to 20.7). Fig. 20.1: Alcoholic beverages (trade names); commonly available in the market Fig. 20.